Untitled Notes

Decolonization After 1900

Following the 20th century, nationalist groups challenged colonial rule through various means:
- Land Reform
- Political Negotiation (e.g., India)
- Armed Struggle (e.g., Angola)
After World War I, multiple failed independence movements fueled anticolonial sentiments during World War II.
Empires became politically unacceptable and European powers struggled to maintain their colonies.
Rhetoric of freedom from WWII accelerated decolonization, particularly during the Cold War and the establishment of the United Nations.
Nguyen Cao Ky stated that South Vietnam's war was a part of the Cold War context.

Indian National Congress: Founded in the 19th century, led by Mohandas Gandhi in 1920.
- Both Hindu and Muslim groups participated in this movement against British rule.
- Tactics included:
- Mass Civil Disobedience
- Remaining a powerful governmental force post-independence.
Muslim League: Founded in 1906, advocated for a separate nation for Indian Muslims.

Not all Indian leaders supported Gandhi's nonviolent approach or his vision for Hindu-Muslim unity; however, differences were set aside until after WWII.
Post-war, Britain weakened, while India's military strength grew, leading to heightened protests for full independence.
Royal Indian Navy Revolt (1946): Key event that led Britain to realize it could no longer effectively govern India.

Muslims feared dominance under a Hindu-majority India, with historical distrust between the two dating back to the 8th century.
Creation of Pakistan: Resulted from the separation aimed to accommodate Muslim populations.
Both India and Pakistan gained independence in 1947.

Geopolitical outline showcasing India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and disputed territories like Kashmir.

Britain negotiated independence for the Gold Coast (Ghana) by leveraging United Nations aid, which successfully saw Ghana become independent in 1957 under President Kwame Nkrumah, who took office in 1960.
Nkrumah's influences included:
- Nationalistic traditions learned in the USA and Britain
- Creation of a national identity with historic narratives, symbols, and infrastructural developments (e.g., hydroelectric plants).
Criticism centered on economic mismanagement, corruption, and the accumulation of debt, typical in subsequent African dictatorships.
Pan-Africanism: A movement emphasized by Nkrumah promoting unity across African nations.
- Founded Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963.
Nkrumah was overthrown in a 1966 coup.

The French colony of Algeria faced significant violence in its path to independence:
- Start of the Algerian War for Independence (1954) initiated by the National Liberation Front (FLN).
- Guerrilla attacks against French forces despite low French military casualties.
- Reports of extensive torture inflicted upon Algerians.

France's domestic discord over Algeria's independence led President Charles de Gaulle to propose plans circumventing parliamentary approval through a referendum.
The independence in 1962 led to a civil struggle, an exodus of pro-French settlers, and heightened instability in France.
The Algerian Civil War (1991-2002) followed, exacerbated by the military’s reaction against Islamist victories in elections.

Both countries transitioned under military rule but faced differing outcomes:
- Ghana established a more stable multiparty system with constitutional reforms.
- Algeria faced persistent religious tensions culminating in assassination and military governance.

Similar to Britain's approach, France negotiated independence for its colonies in French West Africa: Senegal, Ivory Coast, Niger, etc.
Use of indirect rule to manage these territories, leading to nationwide demands for autonomy and independence.

French colonial rule was briefly interrupted during WWII.
Post-war, a battle began against Ho Chi Minh's communist forces advocating for a unified Vietnam.
Independence war against France culminated in 1954 with the Geneva Accords splitting Vietnam into North and South.
- Elections planned for 1956 were postponed, leading to intense conflict supported by U.S. military aid.
Major U.S. involvement peaked until troop withdrawal in 1971, resulting in a devastating Vietnam War and excessive casualties.
By the 1980s, reforms initiated some open markets in Vietnam and reestablished relations with the U.S.

Egypt established nominal independence in 1922, with British oversight maintained through the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty.
Gamal Abdel Nasser's Role: Overthrew the monarchy in 1952, leading a blend of socialism and Islamic policies, notably the nationalization of the Suez Canal.
Suez Crisis (1956): Nasser nationalized the canal, provoking military responses from Israel, Britain, and France. U.S. and Soviet interventions ultimately mediated a resolution affirming Egypt's sovereign control of the canal.

Nigeria achieved independence in 1960, but the Biafran Civil War erupted in 1967 due to ethnic tensions, particularly among the Igbos seeking independence.
The civil war concluded in 1970 with inadequate civilian governance, leading to military rule.
The government implemented a federation to combat ethnic disparity but still faced friction among various groups.

Quebec's French heritage spurred a historical quest for separation from British governance.
The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s marked profound change, political reorganizational efforts, and separatist sentiments bolstered by nationalist movements.
The 1995 separatist referendum was narrowly defeated, maintaining Canadian unity.

GOVERNMENT:
- Leaders: Kwame Nkrumah, Charles de Gaulle, Ho Chi Minh, Gamal Abdel Nasser.
- Structures: One-party state.
GOVERNMENT:
- Wars, Conflicts, Compromises: Algerian War for Independence, Algerian Civil War, Suez Crisis, Biafran Civil War, Quiet Revolution.
SOCIETY:
- Pro-Independence Organizations: Muslim League, Organization of African Unity (OAU).
- Military-Political Organizations: Viet Cong.