World War I: Rivalries, Warfare, and Postwar Peace (1914–1919)

19.2 Rivalries Lead To War

• By 1914, Germany had surpassed Britain as Europe’s leading industrial power, destabilizing the balance of power in Europe.
• Transformation of the Great Powers’ status since 1814–1814 Prussia was the smallest of the Great Powers; by 1914 Germany (the nation Prussia created in 1871 after defeating Austria and France in war) had become the strongest. Between 1871 and 1913, Germany surpassed Britain to become Europe’s leading industrial power, dramatically altering the balance of power.
• After 1871, Austria-Hungary reorganized and accepted Germany’s leadership in Central Europe. France’s defeat in 1871 caused it to lose status and territory to the new German nation. France resented both results.
• Germany was surrounded by potential enemies. Tensions with France persisted, and German leaders were suspicious of Russia to the east. These concerns spurred Germany to build a powerful army and navy using its new industrial might.
• In the late 1800s, Russia was expanding in Asia. After its defeat by Japan in the Russo‑Japanese War (1904–1905), Russia refocused on European affairs, being less interested in Germany than in the Balkan Peninsula (largely under Ottoman control).
• Britain, focused on maintaining its worldwide empire, had little interest in continental Europe as long as the balance of power held. By about 1900, continental developments concerned Britain: Russia’s expansion in Asia threatened India; Germany’s naval buildup threatened British naval supremacy, prompting Britain to expand its own navy.
• France sought to match Germany’s 600,000-man army, even though its population was about two‑thirds of Germany’s 68 million. Russia, with a population nearly triple that of Germany, faced no such challenge with an army of about 1.3 million.
• Shifting alliances under Bismarck (until 1890) aimed to neutralize potential enemies on Germany’s borders:
  • Three Emperors’ Alliance (1881) with Russia and Austria‑Hungary to protect Germany.
  • Triple Alliance (1882) with Italy and Austria‑Hungary, forming a bloc that hurt France by depriving it of allies.
  • After the Three Emperors’ League dissolved due to tensions between Russia and Austria‑Hungary, Bismarck kept France isolated by forming a German–Russian Reinsurance Treaty (1887).
• The rise of a new Kaiser, Wilhelm II (took throne in 1888), and Germany’s overseas empire ambitions led to German naval buildup. Bismarck was forced to resign and the Reinsurance Treaty expired, increasing tensions with Russia and Britain.
• Paris, Petrograd, Londres contres Berlin – France, Russia, and Britain formed a closer bloc against Germany and Austria‑Hungary’s ambitions.
• The Franco‑Russian rapprochement and growing British alignment with France and Russia culminated in two rival alliance systems: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria‑Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain).
• Unrest in the Balkans intensified as Balkan peoples sought freedom as Ottoman power declined. The Great Powers recognized Serbia’s independence (1878) and placed Austria‑Hungary in charge of Bosnia‑Herzegovina, a region of Croats, Turks, and Serbs on Serbia’s border. Russia formed close ties with Serbia and acted as Serbia’s protector.
• In 1907, the Great Powers formed the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain). If a member of either alliance entered a conflict, the others were pledged to support it, and fighting between any member of the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente could pull the other four nations into war.
• In June 1914, Serb nationalism (supported by leaders in Serbia’s government) culminated in Gavrilo Princip’s assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
• Austria‑Hungary saw Ferdinand’s assassination as a chance to crush Serbian nationalism. After securing Germany’s support, it issued harsh demands on Serbia. Serbia’s partial acceptance still led Austria‑Hungary to declare war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
• Russia, pledged to protect Serbia, began mobilization. Germany demanded Russia halt mobilization within 24 hours and demanded France pledge neutrality in case of war with Germany. When these demands were ignored, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and on France two days later. Britain declared war on Germany over Belgium’s neutrality, pulling the entire British Empire into the conflict.
• The alliance systems transformed a regional Balkan crisis into a continental—then global—war.

19.3 Fighting

• The Schlieffen Plan aimed to defeat France in the west by quickly knocking it out of the war before Russia could mobilize in the east. France, however, had heavily fortified its border with Germany, so Germany planned to bypass defenses by invading France from the north through neutral Belgium.
• Belgium’s refusal to allow German troops to pass triggered Britain's entry into the war. Germany’s violation of Belgian neutrality led Britain to declare war on Germany, turning a continental crisis into a wider conflict.
• The Western Front evolved into a stalemated trench warfare system. A network of trenches stretched about 400 ext{ miles} from the English Channel to Switzerland by late 1914, creating a brutal, drawn‑out war with heavy casualties.
• Major battles on the Western Front included Verdun (1916) and the Somme (1916), each lasting months and producing nearly 2 million combined casualties without decisive victory.
• A New Kind of War: Modern weapons and tactics combined with traditional offensive zeal caused unprecedented slaughter:
  • Rifles with long-range accuracy (over a quarter‑mile).
  • Machine guns capable of about 600 rounds per minute to ranges over ½ mile.
  • Artillery with shells capable of traveling up to 25 ext{ miles}.
  • Barbed wire entanglements protecting trenches.
  • Tanks (first used at the Somme) to break through wire and trenches.
  • Poison gas first used by Germany in 1915, spreading panic and forcing troops out of trenches.
  • Aircraft for reconnaissance, directing artillery, dropping bombs on military and civilian targets.
• The Eastern Front saw less trench warfare, but battles were still bloody. In August 1914, Russia attacked Germany, but was nearly annihilated at Tannenberg (approx. 150{,}000 Russian soldiers involved; about 130{,}000 killed/wounded/prisoner).
• As German forces advanced into Russia, Austria‑Hungary conquered Serbia (1915) and Romania (1916). In 1917, massive losses contributed to Russia’s collapse and withdrawal from the war after a peace treaty with the Central Powers.
• The Fighting Elsewhere: Gallipoli campaign (early 1915–late 1916) aimed to secure a sea route to Russia by capturing Constantinople; Allied forces failed after heavy casualties. The campaign helped spur Arab uprisings (1916) and the British capture of Jerusalem (December 1917).
• The Ottoman Empire faced internal and external tensions, including Armenian feelings of persecution. In early 1915, Armenians faced mass displacement and killings, with up to 600{,}000 Armenians killed or starved in what is recognized as the Armenian genocide.
• Africa and the Pacific also saw fighting: about 12{,}000 African soldiers and 130{,}000 Allied troops fought in German East Africa; other global theaters had smaller effects on the outcome.
• The War at Home: Blockades and wartime economies strained resources. Britain and Germany blockaded each other, causing inflation and shortages. Some economies printed money to fund war costs; Italy experienced price inflation on the order of 700 ext{ percent} during the war.
• Conscription and morale: Many powers forcefully drafted troops (Britain 1916: ages 18–41; Germany: all ages eligible). Propaganda supported morale, but by 1917 peace movements appeared in many nations.
• By 1917, the war’s scale and attrition pushed nations toward radical measures and public dissent.

19.4 The Tide Turns

• In early 1915, Britain proclaimed a naval blockade of Germany’s North Sea approaches; Germany responded with a blockade of Britain in 1915.
• Germany turned to submarine warfare to cut off Allied shipping (the U‑boat, Unterseeboot). Submarines could sink ships without engaging surface vessels, often without warning.
• The U‑boat campaign helped bring the United States into the war. Tensions with Britain increased when British ships seized American goods bound for Germany; the sinking of the Lusitania (May 1915) carried 1,198 passengers, including 128 Americans, and 173 tons of ammunition from New York to London, provoking public outrage.
• To avoid American entry, Germany pledged to warn ships before sinking them, but in February 1917 resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. Germany also offered an alliance with Mexico, promising to reward Mexican claims to territory in the American Southwest if Mexico joined the war against the United States.
• The United States entered the war in April 1917 after these actions and growing concern that Germany could win before American forces were ready. The entry brought critical resources (arms, food, and supplies) and manpower to Britain and France.
• The United States also contributed to a broader peace effort: Wilson issued the Fourteen Points in January 1918, outlining broad principles for a postwar settlement and a League of Nations.
• The Fourteen Points emphasized: (i) no secret agreements; (ii) freedom of the seas; (iii) removal of trade barriers; (iv) arms reductions; (v) fair settlements of colonial disputes; (vi–(viii)) territorial adjusters and self-determination for nations; (ix–x) specific territorial arrangements; (xi) the creation of a general association of nations (the League of Nations).
• Wilson’s Fourteen Points were not accepted by all Allied leaders, who preferred to protect national interests. Nonetheless, the Points influenced postwar sentiment and Germany’s decision to surrender in November 1918.
• Russia’s withdrawal (late 1917) allowed Germany to shift troops to the Western Front, enabling a spring offensive in 1918. By mid‑1918, American manpower arrived in large numbers, aiding Allied counteroffensives and turning the tide.
• The Second Battle of the Somme (Spring 1918) brought heavy casualties on both sides; by June, German forces were close to Paris again, but Allied resistance and American reinforcements halted their advance at critical points (e.g., Château‑Thierry, the Marne).
• The Allied counteroffensive in the summer and fall of 1918, including the Meuse‑Argonne Offensive, pushed German forces back and contributed to the collapse of the Central Powers.
• Bulgaria, facing overall defeat, surrendered on September 30, 1918; the Ottoman Empire followed with its surrender on October 30, 1918. Austria‑Hungary collapsed as its internal forces dissolved; Germany faced domestic unrest and revolts that culminated in the abdication of the Kaiser on November 9, 1918.
• An armistice was signed on November 11, 1918, at 11:00 a.m., ending fighting in World War I. Germany had to surrender its military equipment and repatriate troops; Allied occupation of Germany was avoided, but the terms crippled German military capacity.
• The War’s Costs: About 65{,}000{,}000 soldiers fought; roughly 8{,}500{,}000 killed and 21{,}000{,}000 wounded. Germany and Russia each lost about 1{,}700{,}000 soldiers; Britain and the British Empire about 900{,}000 dead. Civilian casualties are hard to quantify, but destruction across France, Belgium, and other areas was extensive. Estimated economic costs include about 33 ext{ billion USD} in reparations and roughly 200 ext{ billion USD} in total fighting costs (monetary values reflect contemporary estimates and conversions).
• The war’s social impact extended beyond the battlefield, including generations of lost young men and widespread hardship for civilians.

19.5 Peace and Its Aftermath

• The Paris Peace Conference began in January 1919 to set terms of peace. Twenty‑seven nations participated, but the so‑called Big Four dominated: Prime Minister David Lloyd George (Great Britain), French Premier Georges Clemenceau, Italy’s Vittorio Orlando, and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson.
• The treaties that followed included Germany (Treaty of Versailles, June 1919), Austria (September 1919), Bulgaria (November 1919), Hungary (June 1920), and Turkey (August 1920).
• The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms on Germany:
  • Territorial losses: Alsace-Lorraine returned to France; East Prussia separated from Germany by a Polish corridor to give Poland access to the Baltic; other eastern lands reassigned; Germany lost overseas colonies.
  • Military limits: a small navy and a 100,000‑man army; no offensive weapons; Rhineland forbidden to German troops; Saar region under international control for 15 years (France controlled Saar coal mines).
  • Responsibility for the war: Germany had to accept sole responsibility for starting the war and to pay reparations (initially set at 33 ext{ billion USD}, about 402 ext{ billion USD today}).
• The other Central Powers and Russia fared poorly as well. The Allies redrew Europe's map along ethnic lines, forming new states such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia; Austria and Hungary became separate states; Romania and Italy gained territories; the Ottoman Empire dissolved, with Britain and France assuming control of many Arab lands and Turkey undergoing revolutionary reform in 1923.
• Russia emerged from the war with significant territorial losses, including independence for Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and substantial land ceded to Poland and other states. The Bolshevik government faced enormous pressure and later peace with the Central Powers (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918) ended Russia’s involvement in the war.
• The League of Nations, established by the Treaty of Versailles, aimed to provide collective security and settle disputes through diplomacy and legal mechanisms, including the Permanent Court of International Justice. It relied on collective security and joint action by member nations, but its effectiveness was hampered by the absence of the United States and limited enforcement power.
• The League’s mandates system transferred control of former German and Ottoman possessions to Allied powers under League supervision, ostensibly to guide them toward independence. Critics viewed the mandates as a way for Allies to retain influence over non‑European territories.
• The postwar era witnessed a shift in global power: the decline of Austria‑Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the fall of monarchies in Germany and Russia, and the emergence of the United States and Japan as major powers. Many in the West came to view war as something to be avoided, a sentiment reinforced by subsequent attempts at international cooperation, such as the Washington Naval Conference (1921) and the Kellogg‑Briand Pact (1928).
• The peace settlement left many nations dissatisfied, with Germany, Italy, and Japan in particular seeking more favorable gains. These unresolved tensions would contribute to the onset of future conflicts. The peace era also fostered a new cultural and intellectual climate in the 1920s, including the Lost Generation in the United States and the Surrealist movement in Europe.
• Summary: World War I (1914–1918) reshaped political boundaries, economies, and social structures; it led to the dissolution of empires, the rise of new powers, the creation of the League of Nations, and a fragile and contested peace that would influence global events for decades. The era underscored how alliances could turn local disputes into global wars and highlighted the tension between idealistic peace aims (Fourteen Points) and hard‑ball national interests during postwar settlements.

Connections and Implications

• The war demonstrated how industrial capacity and naval power could destabilize strategic balance and drive nations toward arms races and entangling alliances.
• The collision of nationalism, imperial ambitions, and great‑power politics showed how regional tensions (Balkans) could escalate into global conflict through alliance commitments.
• The postwar settlement illustrates the tension between punitive peace and the long‑term stability of Europe: overly harsh terms on Germany contributed to resentment that fueled later political upheavals.
• The creation of the League of Nations represented a pioneering effort at collective security, but its lack of enforcement power and the absence of the United States limited its effectiveness, foreshadowing the challenges of international governance in the interwar period.
• The war’s social and cultural aftershocks—including the Lost Generation and modernist art movements—reflected the deep disruption and disillusionment that followed the conflict, shaping the cultural landscape of the 1920s and beyond.

Key Dates to Remember

• 1871–1913: German industrial growth surpasses Britain; shifting balance of power.
• 28 June 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo.
• 28 July 1914: Austria‑Hungary declares war on Serbia.
• 1–4 August 1914: Germany declares war on Russia and France; Britain declares war on Germany after invasion of Belgium.
• May 1915: Lusitania sunk; U‑boats begin aggressive blockade strategy.
• 1917: United States enters World War I (April); Wilson’s Fourteen Points (January).
• 11 November 1918: Armistice signed; war ends.
• June 1919: Treaty of Versailles signed with Germany.
• 1921–1923: Washington Naval Conference and postwar treaty settlements.

Important Terms and Concepts

• Arms race, balance of power, alliance systems, Triple Alliance, Triple Entente, Reinsurance Treaty, Schlieffen Plan, trench warfare, stalemate, Western Front, Eastern Front, Gallipoli campaign, Armenian genocide, armistice, Versailles Treaty, League of Nations, mandates, self-determination, reparations.
• Self-determination and national borders reshaped the map of Europe and Southwest Asia.
• The economic and social strains of total war reshaped governments’ roles in economies and civil liberties, setting the stage for political upheavals in the 1920s and beyond.

Formulas, Numbers, and Calculations

• Front extent: 400\text{ miles} of trenches on the Western Front.
• Casualties and manpower (illustrative figures):
  • Total soldiers who fought: 65{,}000{,}000
  • Killed: 8{,}500{,}000
  • Wounded: 21{,}000{,}000
  • German and Russian deaths: 1{,}700{,}000 each
  • British Empire deaths: ~900{,}000
• Reparations for Germany: 33{,}000{,}000\text{ USD} (historical value; ≈ 402{,}000{,}000\text{ USD today})
• Postwar naval reductions: agreements like the Washington Naval Conference (1921) reduced navy sizes (specific figures varied by nation and treaty).

Connections to Later Topics

• The punitive nature of Versailles and the League’s limitations contributed to German resentment and the rise of extremist movements, influencing the lead-up to World War II.
• The League of Nations’ weaknesses—especially the lack of U.S. participation—highlighted the difficulty of turning collective security into effective enforcement.
• The interwar economic destabilization (inflation, reparations, debt) intersected with political turmoil to reshape Europe’s political landscape.