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The Enlightenment

  • Essential Question: How did the Enlightenment shape the intellectual and ideological thinking that affected reform and revolution after 1750?

  • Quote by René Descartes (1596-1650): "Except our own thoughts, there is nothing absolutely in our power."

The Enlightenment Overview

  • Development of new ideas during the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries.

    • Shift from tradition to reason and individualism.

    • Challenged monarchs and church leaders.

    • Seeds of revolution planted in the United States, France, and globally.

An Age of New Ideas

  • Emergence from the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance humanism.

  • Optimistic view that applying reason to natural laws would yield progress.

  • Emphasis on human accomplishments without denying God’s existence, leading to:

    • Understanding natural laws that govern both the natural and social world.

    • Reduction in pervasiveness of traditional religion.

New Social Theories

  • Emergence of diverse schools of thought:

    • Socialism and Liberalism (collectively referred to as "the Age of Isms").

    • Opposition from Conservatism, favored by the ruling European class.

  • Revolutions sparked by:

    • Desire for independence from imperial powers.

    • Demand for constitutional representation.

  • Rise of Nationalism:

    • Intense loyalty to a shared culture and language.

    • Challenge to multiethnic empires in Europe.

New Ideas and Their Roots

  • Francis Bacon (1561-1626):

    • Emphasis on empirical scientific inquiry.

    • Definition: Empiricism - belief that knowledge arises from sensory experience and observation.

Philosophers of the 17th Century

  • Thomas Hobbes (Author of Leviathan, 1651):

    • View on social contracts: Life's natural state is "nasty, brutish, and short."

    • People give up certain rights to a strong government in exchange for order.

  • John Locke (Author of Two Treatises of Government, 1690):

    • Advocated for citizens’ rights to revolt against unjust governments.

    • Definition: Natural Rights - rights to life, liberty, and property.

    • Proposal of mind as a "tabula rasa" (blank slate), influenced by environment and education.

The Philosophes

  • 18th Century Thinkers:

    • Group known as philosophes, popularizing rational concepts from earlier scientific thinkers.

    • Notable figures:

    • Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin (America)

    • Adam Smith (Scotland)

    • Various influential French thinkers.

Significant Philosophers and Their Works

  • Baron Montesquieu:

    • Work:The Spirit of Laws (1748): Praised the British system's checks on power through Parliament.

    • Influenced American constitutional separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial).

  • Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet):

    • Notable for social satire and advocacy of civil liberties (e.g., Candide, 1762).

    • Recognized for promoting religious liberty and judicial reform influenced U.S. Constitution.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau:

    • Expanded social contract theory in works like Emile and The Social Contract.

    • Introduced concept of the General Will and the obligation of government to fulfill it.

Adam Smith

  • Renowned economist; Author of The Wealth of Nations (1776).

    • Responded to mercantilism with calls for freer trade and laissez-faire economics ("leave alone").

    • Suggested that individuals acting in their self-interest would be guided by an "invisible hand" to benefit society generally, foundational for capitalism.

Deism

  • Some Enlightenment thinkers adopted Deism:

    • View of divinity as a watchmaker not intervening in the world.

    • Knowledge derived through scientific inquiry, not Biblical study.

    • Thomas Paine advocated for Deism in The Age of Reason (1794).

European Intellectual Life (1250-1789)

  • Periods and Thinkers:

    • Medieval Scholasticism: St. Thomas Aquinas

    • Renaissance Humanism: Erasmus, Mirandola

    • Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment:

    • Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, Hobbes, Locke, French Philosophes

  • Characteristics:

    • Scholarly arguments based on reason.

    • Reliance on empirical data and advocacy of change.

The Age of New Ideas Continues

  • Enlightenment thinkers respond to urbanization and industrialization issues.

    • Increase in urban poverty and poor living conditions.

    • Proposals for reforms:

    • Greater government regulation and Christian charity.

    • Conservative views attributing issues to the poor's lack of effort.

Utopian Socialism

  • Socialism: System of public ownership of production means.

    • Notable Utopian Socialists:

    • Henri de Saint-Simon: Advocated for clean, efficient production managed by engineers.

    • Charles Fourier: Promoted enjoyment in work through understanding passions.

    • Robert Owen: Established communities in Scotland and Indiana, focusing on education and communal property ownership.

  • Fabian Society: Gradual social reform advocates.

Classical Liberalism

  • Advocated for natural rights, constitutional governance, and laissez-faire economics.

  • Engaged in achieving equal representation in Parliament for emerging industrial cities.

  • Supported parliament reforms broadening male suffrage.

Emergence of Feminism

  • Beginnings of women's rights movement influenced by Enlightenment ideals:

    • Olympe de Gouges: Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the (Female) Citizen (1791) to address overlooked women's rights.

    • Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), advocating for women's education and emancipation through reason.

    • Women gained full voting rights in 1928.

    • Seneca Falls Convention (1848) established foundational demands for women's rights.

Abolitionism and Social Reforms

  • Abolitionism: Movement to end slavery and the slave trade.

    • Significant timeline: Denmark (1803), Great Britain (1807), U.S. (1808).

    • Slavery declined significantly after the trade was banned across most territories.

    • Brazil was the last in the Americas to abolish slavery (1888).

The End of Serfdom

  • Decline of serfdom in Europe due to economic shifts from agrarian to industrial.

    • Key abolitions:

    • Queen Elizabeth I (1574)

    • French government (1789)

    • Alexander II of Russia (1861), emancipation of 23 million serfs.

The Rise of Zionism

  • Zionism: Movement for Jewish independence in historical homeland, driven by anti-Semitism and desire for safety.

    • Theodor Herzl as significant leader.

    • Growth of Zionist support post-Dreyfus Affair (1894); conflict over land and religious identities in the Middle East.

    • Zionist momentum culminated in the establishment of Israel in 1948.

Key Terms by Theme

  • Culture Isms: Enlightenment, nationalism, conservatism, feminism, abolitionism, Zionism.

  • Government: John Locke, social contract, deism, tabula rasa, liberalism, philosophes.

  • Economy: Adam Smith, laissez-faire capitalism, socialism, utopian socialism, Fabian Society.