Psych Final Study Guide

Introduction to Psychology

• Hypothesis: A tentative explanation for a phenomenon observed.

• Theory: A broad explanation based on existing data that seeks to interpret aspects of the natural world.

• Empirical Method: Acquiring knowledge through observation rather than purely logical arguments.

Combating Misinformation

• Consider the source: Investigate the site's mission and contact info.

• Check the author: Explore the author's credibility.

• Check the date: Ensure the news is relevant and not outdated.

• Read beyond headlines: Look at the full story to avoid sensationalism.

• Supporting sources: Validate the information provided by checking linked sources.

• Identify satire: Determine if content is humor or satire to avoid misconceptions.

• Ask experts: Consult librarians or fact-checking sites for accurate information.

Psychology: Old and New

• Psychology is paradoxically both ancient and modern.

  • Ancient roots: More than 2,500 years old, with philosophers like Plato and Aristotle.

  • Modern roots: Experimental psychology developed in the 19th century, emerging from philosophy.

Perspectives in Psychology

• Structuralism:

  • Focus on understanding conscious experience through introspection (Wilhelm Wundt).

  • Introspection: Examining one’s own conscious experience.

• Functionalism:

  • Examines how mental activities help an organism adapt to the environment (William James, first American psychologist).

• Psychoanalytic Theory:

  • Emphasizes the unconscious mind's influence on conscious behavior (Sigmund Freud).

  • Accessed via techniques like dream analysis.

• Gestalt Psychology:

  • Focuses on human perception as a whole rather than separate components (Wertheimer, Kafka, Kohler).

• Behaviorism:

  • Centers on observable behavior (John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner).

  • Classical conditioning concept by Pavlov; Skinner investigated behavior consequences.

• Humanism:

  • Highlights innate human goodness (Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Rogers' client-centered therapy).

• Cognitive Psychology:

  • Focuses on mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving (Noam Chomsky argued for mental functioning in psychology).

Branches of Psychology

• Biological Psychology: Biological basis of behavior.

• Evolutionary Psychology: How natural selection influences thought, feeling, and behavior.

• Cognitive Psychology: Investigates mental functions including problem-solving and memory.

• Developmental Psychology: Explores changes throughout life.

• Personality Psychology: Studies persistent traits.

• Social Psychology: Examines social interactions and influences.

• Clinical Psychology: Deals with psychological disorders using assessment and treatment.

• Forensic Psychology: Integrates psychology with the legal system.

• Health Psychology: Focuses on health promotion and illness prevention.

• Educational Psychology: Studies how people learn.

Research Methods in Psychology

• Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning:

  • Inductive: Specific to general (bottom-up).

  • Deductive: General to specific (top-down).

• Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods:

  • Qualitative: Observed from inside-out (e.g., interviews).

  • Quantitative: Use numbers to examine variables (e.g., correlation).

  • Mixed Methods: Combination of both approaches.

• Statistical Significance: Determines the probability that findings are due to chance (typically below 5%).

• Experimental Design: Involves control and experimental groups, random assignment, and blinding techniques.

• Qualitative Research Types: Includes interviews, focus groups, and case studies.

• Observational Research: Can be skewed by observer bias.

• Archival Research: Analyzing existing data to identify patterns.

• Research Ethics: Ensures informed consent and ethical treatment of subjects.

Biological Psychology

• Human Genetics: DNA structure and functionality, the distinction between genotype and phenotype.

• Neurons: Basic units of the brain; consist of cell bodies, axons, and synapses.

• Action Potentials: Electrical impulses resulting from the movement of ions in and out of the neuron.

• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals affecting neuron communication; categorized as inhibitory (e.g., GABA) or excitatory (e.g., Glutamate).

• Nervous System: Composed of the central (CNS) and peripheral nervous systems (PNS).

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: Detection of stimuli via sensory receptors.

• Perception: Interpretation and organization of sensory input.

• Transduction: Translating stimuli into neural signals.

• Thresholds: Absolute threshold and just noticeable difference (JND).

• Processing: Bottom-up processing involves building perceptions from sensory details; top-down processing relies on prior knowledge and expectations.

Memory

• Stages of Memory: Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

• Types of Long-Term Memory: Explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit (procedural, emotional).

• Encoding Strategies: Semantic (meaningful), visual, and acoustic encodings.

• Memory Retrieval: Involves recall, recognition, and relearning.

Psychological Disorders

• Definitions: Distinction between normal and abnormal psychological states; medical model understanding of disorders.

• Anxiety Disorders: Characterized by excessive, persistent fear and anxiety.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Involves obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (ritualistic behaviors).

• Depressive Disorders: Characterized by persistent sadness and loss of interest.

• Bipolar Disorder: Fluctuation between depressive and manic states.

• Schizophrenia: Characterized by hallucinations and delusions affecting perception of reality.