Unit 0 Notes: Science Practices and Research Methods

Foundational Context

  • Psychology is derived from physiology (biology) and philosophy.

Early Approaches

  • Structuralism: used INTROSPECTION (act of looking inward to examine mental experience) to determine the underlying STRUCTURES of the mind.
  • Functionalism: analyze the PURPOSE of behavior.

Approaches Key Words

  • Psychoanalytic/dynamic: unconscious, childhood.
  • Behavioral: learned, reinforced.
  • Humanistic: free will, choice, ideal, actualization.
  • Cognitive: Perceptions, thoughts.
  • Evolutionary: Genes.
  • Biological: Brain, NTs.
  • Sociocultural: society.
  • Biopsychosocial: combo of above.

Notable People

  • Mary Calkins: First female President of the APA.
  • Charles Darwin: Natural selection & evolution.
  • Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental institutions in the U.S.
  • Stanley Hall: 1st president of APA; 1st journal.
  • William James: Father of American Psychology – functionalist.
  • Wilhelm Wundt: Father of Modern Psychology – structuralist.
  • Margaret Floy Washburn: 1st female PhD.
  • Christine Ladd Franklin: 1st female (noted in transcript; context suggests pioneering female contributor).

Random Terms

  • Basic research: purpose is to increase knowledge (e.g., studies with rats).
  • Applied research: purpose is to help people.
  • Psychologist: research or counseling – typically MS or PhD.
  • Psychiatrist: prescribe medications and diagnose – M.D.

Experiment Overall (General Concepts)

  • Experiment: Adv - researcher controls variables to establish cause and effect. Disadv - difficult to generalize.
  • Independent Variable (IV): manipulated by the researcher.
  • Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV).
  • Control Group: baseline or placebo (part of the IV).
  • Placebo Effect: behavior changes associated with having received the placebo.
  • Double-Blind: neither participant nor experimenter knows which condition is assigned (common in drug studies).
  • Single-Blind: only the participant is blind; used if the experimenter cannot be blind (e.g., due to practical reasons like gender, age, etc.).
  • Dependent Variable (DV): the measured variable; depends on the IV.
  • Operational Definition: clear, precise, typically quantifiable definition of variables to allow replication.
  • Confound: an error or flaw in the study that biases results.

Sampling and Assignment

  • Random Assignment: assigns participants to control or experimental group at random; minimizes bias and increases the chance of equal representation.
  • Random Sample: method for choosing participants; minimizes bias.
  • Assignment and sampling can be done via names in a hat or computer generation.
  • Validity: accuracy of results.
  • Reliability: consistency of results across trials.

Measurement and Observation Methods

  • NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
    • Adv: real-world validity (observe people in their own setting).
    • Disadv: cannot establish cause and effect.

Correlation and Related Concepts

  • CORRELATION

    • Adv: identify relationship between two variables.
    • Disadv: cannot establish cause and effect (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION).
    • Positive Correlation: variables increase & decrease together.
    • Negative Correlation: as one variable increases, the other decreases.
    • The stronger the number, the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the sign (+ or -).
    • 3rd variable problem (lurking variable): a different variable is responsible for the observed relationship (example given: breast implants & suicide).
    • Illusory correlation: belief of a correlation that doesn’t exist (e.g., old man predicts rain from arthritis).

  • CASE STUDY

    • Adv: studies ONE person (usually) in great detail – lots of information.
    • Disadv: no cause-and-effect conclusions.

Descriptive Statistics

  • The shape of the data is described using measures of central tendency.
  • MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
    • Mean: Average (used in normal distribution).
    • Formula: ar{x} = rac{1}{n}
      \sum{i=1}^n xi
    • Median: Middle number (used in skewed distributions).
    • For a sorted data set with n values: if n is odd, median is the middle value; if n is even, median is the average of the two middle values.
    • Mode: value that occurs most often.

Inferential Statistics

  • INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: establishes significance (meaningfulness).
  • STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE: results not due to chance.

Ethical Guidelines (APA)

  • Confidentiality: names kept secret.
  • Informed Consent: participants must agree to be part of the study.
  • Debriefing: participants must be told the true purpose of the study (typically after deception is used).
  • Deception must be warranted.
  • No harm: protection of mental and physical well-being of participants.

Connections and Real-World Relevance

  • Research methods underpin evidence-based practice in psychology and related fields.
  • Understanding biases, control of variables, and ethical guidelines is essential for credible science and humane treatment of participants.
  • Distinguishing correlation from causation helps prevent erroneous conclusions that could impact policy, education, and clinical practice.
  • Historical context (early approaches and key figures) informs contemporary debates about mind, behavior, and the methods used to study them.

Foundational Formulas and Quick References

  • Mean (sample): xˉ=1n ∑<em>i=1nx</em>i\bar{x} = \frac{1}{n} \, \sum<em>{i=1}^{n} x</em>i
  • Note on IV/DV: key variables in experiments are typically denoted as IVIV (independent variable) and DVDV (dependent variable).
  • Definitions to remember:
    • Random Assignment: assigning participants to groups by chance to ensure equivalence.
    • Random Sample: selecting participants from a population in a way that gives each member an equal chance of being chosen.