Animal science

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Animal Science Test 2 Notes

1. Introduction to Animal Health

What is a disease?

• A disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that produces specific signs or symptoms or affects a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury.

• A disease is more commonly defined as abnormal growth and/or dysfunction of an organism. Diseases are the result of some disturbance in the normal life process of the organism.

  • This is why some nutritional deficiencies can be classified as a disease.

  • Same for plants.

Types of Disease

• Infectious: Caused when a causal agent enters the host body.

• Non-infectious: No causal agent; may be caused by environment or trauma.

• Contagious: Capable of spread from animal to animal.

• Non-contagious: Incapable of spread from animal to animal but may be present in more than one animal if they are living in the same environment.

Animal Health Management

• Preventative health: Management practices to keep diseases from forming.

  • Vaccination / dewormer / anti-parasitic meds

  • Adequate nutrition

  • Safe and dry environment

• Treatment: After a disease has occurred, treatment is management to help an animal return to good health.

  • Antibiotics

  • Coccidiostats

  • Mineral pastes / supplements

What is vaccination?

• Vaccination is exposing an individual’s immune system to a weakened version of a disease so that the immune system can recognize it and better fight it later if it comes into contact with the same disease again.

• In shorter terms, a vaccination is used to stimulate the body’s immune response against a specific disease.

Why does disease matter?

• We are called to be good stewards of the animals and resources trusted to us.

• Other than stewardship, unhealthy animals cost money and can impact profitability of an enterprise.

• Millions of dollars are spent every year on keeping animals healthy.

What does “good” health look like?

• Animals are free of anxiety.

• Ruminant animals will chew their cud.

• Body temperature, respiration, and pulse are within the normal ranges.

• Animal is alert.

• The skin is not dry, and hair is not matted.

• Animals eat normal amounts.

• Animals have normal defecation.

What is, in general, NOT good health?

• An animal losing weight.

• Muscle shaking or tremors.

• Coughing.

• Poor growth or a decrease in production.

• Rough or matted coat.

• Loss of appetite.

• Fever or rapid breathing for no reason.

Normal Values for Adult Animals

Why is the human body temperature so much lower than our livestock?

• Heat is generated by our bodies as we metabolize food.

• Environmental temperature also affects a body’s metabolic rate.

• Expected parasite load may also play a role in the normal body temperature of livestock species.

Some Disease Causal Agents

• Bacteria

• Viruses

• Protozoa

• Parasites – worms, insects.

  • External parasites infest an animal.

  • Internal parasites infect an animal.

• Injury

• Genetic diseases.

• Poor nutrition

• Toxic materials in feedstuffs

Disease Occurrence: The Host

The host must be:

• Susceptible to the disease.

• This is why vaccinations are so important.

• Genetic resistance to diseases also prevents susceptibility.

Types of Genetic Resistance

Quantitative

• Relies on several genes for effective control.

• Continuous classes of resistance.

• Resistance lasts longer.

• Horizontal resistance.

Qualitative

• Relies on one gene for effective control.

• Yes or No resistance.

• Creates races within the pathogen.

• Vertical resistance.

Types of Immunity

There are two main types of immunity.

1. Innate Immunity (Natural Immunity)

• Present at birth.

• Provides the body’s first line of defense against disease.

• Responds quickly to pathogens but is not specific to a particular disease.

• Includes:

  • Skin and hair

  • Mucus membranes

  • Stomach acid

  • Fever

  • White blood cells (phagocytes)

Example: Your skin prevents many bacteria from entering your body.

2. Acquired (Adaptive) Immunity

• Develops after exposure to a disease organism or vaccination.

• Specific to a particular pathogen.

• Has memory, allowing a faster response if exposed again.

Adaptive immunity is divided into:

A. Active Immunity

The body produces its own antibodies.

• Natural active immunity: Occurs after recovering from a disease.

  • Example: Recovering from chickenpox.

• Artificial active immunity: Occurs through vaccination.

  • Example: Rabies or tetanus vaccination.

B. Passive Immunity

Antibodies come from another source.

• Natural passive immunity: Antibodies passed from mother to offspring through colostrum (first milk) or across the placenta.

  • Very important in livestock production.

• Artificial passive immunity: Antibodies are given by injection.

  • Example: Antitoxin or antiserum treatments.

Summary of Immunity

A common livestock science classification is:

• Innate immunity

• Active acquired immunity

• Passive acquired immunity

These are the immunity types most often discussed in animal science, veterinary medicine, and livestock health courses.

Disease Occurrence: Virulence

The disease must be virulent.

• Virulent = harmful in its effects.

• For a disease to affect the health of an animal, it must have a harmful effect.

Gene for Gene Theory

• For disease to develop, the pathogen must be virulent, and the host must be susceptible.

• Developing and overcoming resistance is an arms race.

  • Breeders try to build a better resistant individual, and pathogens try to overcome that resistance.

• Qualitative resistance is easy to develop and easy to overcome.

Disease Occurrence: Favorable Environment

• For disease to occur, the environment should be favorable for the disease.

• If the environment favors the host, disease is less likely to occur.

• Environments favoring the host:

  • No other disease infection

  • Reduced parasites

  • Low stress environment

Disease Triangle

Disease occurrence requires three factors:

• Susceptible Host

• Virulent Pathogen

• Favorable Environment

These three components form the Disease Triangle.

2. Introduction to Genetics

What is Genetics?

Genetics is the foundation of life.

Without the ability to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next, existence would be impossible.

An animal’s genetic makeup, or genotype, sets the stage for all traits present in that individual (phenotype).

Traits include:

• Disposition

• Coat type

• Coat color

• Speed

• Gait types

• Body composition

• Growth

• Reproduction

• Milk production

• Disease resistance

• Other traits

Applied Genetics in Animals

Applied genetics in animals is usually referred to as animal breeding.

• Not the same thing as artificial insemination or natural service.

• It is the science that helps in the quest to breed better animals and has led to remarkable changes in animal species.

Genotype vs. Phenotype

• Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual.

• Half of an individual’s genetic makeup is received from the father (sire) and half from the mother (dam).

• Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an individual.

• Phenotype is a result of the environment acting on the genotype.

• Traits that can be observed or measured.

What Causes Differences Between Animals?

• An animal’s phenotype is affected by the animal’s genotype and the impact of the environment.

• The differences in our breeds comes about by selective breeding, humans purposely breeding parents that have certain characteristics in order to produce offspring with that characteristic.

Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA are nucleic acids (deoxyribose or ribose).

• DNA is comprised of phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, and four nitrogenous bases.

• Nitrogenous bases:

  • Adenine (A)

  • Thymine (T)

  • Guanine (G)

  • Cytosine (C)

• These four letters of the genetic alphabet carry the code.

Basic Genetic Concepts

• DNA occurs in a double helix structure which is coiled and bound up to form chromosomes.

• Genes are segments of DNA found on chromosomes.

• A locus (plural is loci) is the physical location of a gene on a chromosome.

• Genotype is the combination of genes that an animal has.

• Each parent contributes one-half of the offspring’s genotype.

• Chromosomes occur in pairs (one chromosome from each parent).

The Anatomy of DNA

• Each chromosome is a single strand of DNA.

• The nucleus of the cell contains the chromosomes.

• It is the arrangement of genes, DNA, and chromosomes that provide the basis for inheritance.

• The folding of DNA will determine which genes are activated.

DNA

• A gene is a segment of the double helix consisting of several hundred nucleotides which codes for a specific protein.

• Proteins that your DNA codes for determine everything about you: your hair color, height, eye color, blood glucose regulation, thumb length, etc.

• The entire genetic material of an animal is termed its genome.

Central Dogma of Biology

DNA → RNA → Protein

3. Male Reproduction

Goals of Animal Reproduction

• Replace animals – young breeding stock to replace older breeding stock.

• Improve herd genetics.

• Produce an animal product – meat, eggs, or milk.

Terms

Animal Classes

• A herd or flock may contain several different animal classes.

• Animals can be classed based on sex, age, physiological state, weight, and/or breed.

Examples:

• Herd sires – mature males.

• Brood cows – mature females.

• First-calf heifers – immature females.

• Unweaned calves – immature animals of both sexes.

Animal Classes and Reproduction

• For reproductive purposes, animal classes may be managed differently both before and after mating.

• Typically, the four classes of animals in a breeding herd are:

  • Mature bulls, boars, or rams

  • Mature cows, sows, or ewes

  • Replacement heifers, gilts, or ewes

  • Immature replacement bulls, boars, or rams

Breeding Male Development Program

• Keep maintenance and breeding costs to a reasonable level.

• Bulls or rams may only be working for 2 to 3 months per year but must be maintained for 12 months.

• Cattle: 1 bull for every 20–30 cows.

• Rams: 1 ram for up to 60 ewes, typically 30–35 ewes.

• Boars: usually 1:1 with sows.

Breeding Male Development Program (continued)

• Males should be developed as yearlings to be used as breeding stock by 12 to 15 months of age.

• Minimize health issues by using a well-defined health management program.

Male Health

• Utilize young, virgin males as herd additions to reduce the risk of introduction of disease.

• Vaccinate and do parasite control at the same time.

Critical Issues

• Previous plane of nutrition should be considered before turning males into a herd/flock.

• Enter breeding season in body condition score 6, a little fatter than average.

Proper “Fleshy” Bull Management

• Gradually decrease intake by 10% increments to one-half of free-choice intake.

• Gradually adapt rumen microbial flora to a forage-based diet.

Events of Reproduction

• Puberty: Age at which reproductive organs become functional.

• Fertilization: Egg and sperm unite.

• Gestation: Length of time of pregnancy.

• Parturition: Act of giving birth.

Age of Puberty

Male Reproductive System

Testes

• Site of sperm production and testosterone synthesis.

• Sperm contain one-half of genetic makeup.

Epididymis

- Sperm storage and maturation.

Scrotum

- Protects testes and regulates temperature.

Male Reproductive System (continued)

Vas deferens

- Transports sperm from epididymis to urethra.

Urethra

- Tube inside the penis that transports sperm or urine to the exterior.

Penis

- Organ of copulation.

Breeding Soundness Exam

• Evaluation of breeding soundness at a point in time.

  • Physical exam

  • Scrotal evaluation and circumference

  • Semen evaluation

• Complete a BSE within 30 to 60 days of the breeding season.

General Physical Exam

• Evaluation of structural soundness, body condition, reproductive tract, scrotum, testes, penis, and overall health.

• Physically capable to breed a female.

Scrotal Evaluation and Circumference

Scrotum considerations:

• Age.

• Feeding environment.

• Breed.

For bulls:

• Terminal sire: minimum 32 cm at 12 months.

• Maternal sire: minimum 34 cm at 12 months.

Semen Collection

• Artificial vagina – good sperm quality.

• Electroejaculator – poorer sperm quality.

• Manual stimulation (gloved-hand technique).

Semen Quality

Breeding Season

• Expect males to lose weight during breeding season.

• Breeding season for cattle and sheep should be limited to 60 days.

Bull and Ram Nutritional Programs After Breeding Season

Feeding Goals

• Recover weight lost during breeding season.

• Weigh mature weight at a slightly above average body condition score.

4. Female Reproductive Anatomy

Female Reproduction

Functions of the female reproductive system:

• Produce a fertile egg (ovum).

• Produce hormones.

• Reset the ovulation cycle.

• Transport the egg and sperm to the site of fertilization.

• House, protect, and grow a fetus and placenta.

• Birthing of the fetus.

Vocabulary

• Estrous cycle: The entire cycle that occurs between when the animal goes into heat and ovulation.

• Estrus: The period of standing heat. The female is sexually receptive to the male.

• Ovulation: Occurs when the egg is released from the follicle to be fertilized.

• Oocyte: Egg.

Vulva

• “Gateway” of the female reproductive tract.

• Only part visible from the outside.

• Swells and becomes reddish-pink during estrus.

  • Response due to estrogen.

• Allows for penetration and insertion to reproductive tract.

Vagina

• A flattened tube; passage between the cervix and the vulva.

• Site of semen deposition during natural insemination.

• Used as passageway for instruments during AI.

• Produces mucus (lubrication).

  • Flushes out irritants and infectious agents.

  • Common site of infection.

Vulva and Vagina

Vagina species differences

• Only the bull and ram will deposit sperm here.

• Boar and stallion deposit sperm in the cervix.

Vulva

- Left and Right Labia – 1st defense against bacteria entering the reproductive tract.

Cervix

• The cervix is a muscular “valve” or “gatekeeper” between the uterus and the vagina.

  • Made of muscular folds that slow down invading materials.

• Completely closed except during estrus and parturition (birthing) to prevent foreign substances/bacteria.

  • Opens during estrus/parturition to allow for young/sperm.

Cervix: Species Differences

• Forms a very tight seal between itself and the uterus.

• Species differences in the shape of the cervix:

  • Cow, Ewe, Nanny: Annular Rings

  • Sow: Corkscrew Shape

  • Mare: Longitudinal Folds

Uterus and Uterine Horns

Uterus

• Muscular, capable of enormous expansion.

• Place where the offspring grows.

• Supports up to 80 kg / 177 lbs of weight.

Uterine horns

• The extensions on either side of the uterus.

• Curl like ram horns.

3 Types

- All mammal livestock are bicornuate – some have more developed horns than others.

Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)

• Oviducts – tubes that carry eggs from ovaries to uterus.

  • Kept shut tight except during ovulation and insemination.

  • Where fertilization occurs.

• Motile sperm meet the egg in the upper part of the oviduct.

• Newly formed zygote stays in the oviduct for several days.

• This time is needed for the uterus to prepare itself.

Infundibulum

• Infundibulum is based on the Latin word for “funnel.”

• The end projection of the oviducts that surrounds, but does not connect to, the ovaries.

• Funnels eggs from ovary into oviduct.

Ovaries

• Small almond-shaped ovals 4–6 cm / 2–3 inches in length.

• Contain thousands of ova (plural of ovum, or egg cell).

  • These were created before birth of the female.

  • Each animal has a finite supply.

Ovaries (continued)

• Produce a mature ovum (oocyte) (egg) every 21 days.

• Produce/secrete hormones that:

  • Control growth of egg.

  • Change cow’s behavior.

  • Prepare reproductive tract for pregnancy.

  • Start parturition process (birth).

  • Prepare mammary glands for lactation.

Follicles

• Follicles – start as cavities (holes) on the ovary.

  • An egg moves to this cavity.

  • It is surrounded by support cells and nutritive substances.

• All these things together are the follicle.

Corpus Luteum

• Corpus luteum translated = yellow body.

• Produces progesterone, a hormone which sustains the pregnancy (allows pregnancy to “stick”).

• Occurs regardless of fertilization.

Egg (Ovum)

• Female gamete (reproductive cell).

• Haploid – half the number of normal chromosomes.

• Present prior to birth, but maturation occurs at puberty.

• Multiple eggs begin developing during a cycle, but only one matures.

How They Change During Estrus

• Vulva – swollen due to estrogen, covered in mucus.

• Vagina – excess mucus production.

• Cervix – dilates to allow acceptance of semen.

• Oviducts – open to allow ovulation, fertilization.

• Ovaries – ovulation – release of the follicle (egg and some supporting cells) from the ovary.

  • Number of young that a female can produce at one time is determined by how many eggs are released during ovulation.

  • Ovulation usually occurs at the end of a heat/estrus.

Anatomical Disorders

• Closed Cervix – cervix does not open to allow fertilization.

• Retained Placenta – afterbirth stays in cow.

• Freemartin – heifer exposed to male hormones.

• Cystic ovaries – growth/swelling of ovaries.

• Infection – varies.

• Anovulation – lack of ovulation.

• Metritis – inflammation of lining of the uterus.

The Estrus Cycle

Length of the estrus cycle is species specific:

Gestation Rates in Days

Parturition or Birth

• Initiated by hormones secreted by the offspring.

• Oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland travels to the muscles of the uterus to cause contractions.

• Pressure against the cervix will neurologically message the pituitary.

5. Artificial Insemination and Synchronization

Artificial Insemination

A.I. is a technique in which semen is collected from the male, processed, stored, and artificially introduced into the female reproductive tract at proper time with the help of AI instruments for the purpose of conception without natural mating.

Animals Used for AI

• Cattle (beef and dairy cows)

• Swine (pigs)

• Sheep

• Goats

• Horses

These species are frequently bred using AI because it:

• Improves herd genetics.

• Reduces the need to keep breeding males.

• Helps control disease transmission.

• Saves time and money.

Steps of Artificial Insemination

• Semen collection.

• Semen evaluation / processing the semen.

• Freezing semen.

• Preparing to inseminate – record keeping.

• Thawing the semen.

• Locating the cervix and entering the rod.

• Depositing semen.

Why Do We AI?

• A way to improve the genetics of the herd.

• There is no need for maintenance of breeding bull for a herd – a tank of semen is much easier to store than a bull.

• It prevents the spread of certain diseases.

• Saves time and money.

Improving Herd Quality

• Improvement of production traits in just one generation.

• Ability to use the best bulls of the breed despite not owning those bulls.

No Need for Bull Maintenance

• Most male animals are more dangerous than the females of the species.

• Bulls only work a few months in a year, but we must feed them and maintain them for 12 months of the year.

• Must be housed separately from the females outside of breeding season – costly.

Prevents Spread of Disease

• It prevents the spread of certain diseases and infertility caused by sexually transmitted diseases.

• Prevents vibriosis, bovine herpes virus, leptospirosis, trichomoniasis.

• Fertilization occurs without risking mating injuries.

Saves Time and Money

• No need to purchase or maintain a bull, boar, ram, or stallion year-round.

• Lower feed, housing, veterinary, and management costs because semen is much less expensive to store than a live breeding animal.

• Breeding many females in a short period of time, especially when combined with estrous synchronization.

• Access to superior genetics without the expense of owning high-quality sires.

• Reduced risk of injuries and certain reproductive diseases, which can lower treatment and replacement costs.

Estrous Synchronization

A management technique that makes use of hormones to control or synchronize the estrous cycle.

Hormones Associated with Reproduction

• LH – luteinizing hormone

• FSH – follicle stimulating hormone

• Progesterone

• Estrogen

• Prostaglandin

Why Synchronize?

• Group females for breeding (reduce calving interval).

• Shorten breeding season (and calving season).

• Reduce need for estrus (heat) detection.

  • We can AI without synching cows, but it is easier to synch them and AI all at once.

Advantages of Synchronization

• Calves produced early in season will wean heavier because they are older and bring more money at sale.

• Cows require 50–60 days to recover from calving before next breeding.

  • Cows that bred earlier have better chance of maintaining a 365-day calving interval.

  • Producing one calf.

Basis for Synchronization of Estrus

• Manipulate life span of CL.

  • CL produces progesterone that maintains a pregnancy.

• Manipulate growth of follicles and timing of ovulation.

Hormones Used in Synchronization

• GnRH: Causes follicles to develop and release the egg.

• PGF₂α (Prostaglandin): Causes ovulation to occur and the heat cycle to start over.

• CIDRs: Slow-release progesterone; maintenance of pregnancy or of CL.

• MGA: Suppresses estrus.

  • Melengestrol acetate simulates estrogen to prevent ovulation.

Synchronization Methods

GnRH Protocol

- Uses GnRH (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone) to stimulate follicle development and ovulation.

PGF₂α (Prostaglandin) Protocol

- Uses prostaglandin to regress the corpus luteum (CL) and cause females to return to estrus.

CIDR Protocol

• Uses a CIDR (Controlled Internal Drug Release) device that slowly releases progesterone.

• Animals typically return to estrus 2–4 days after CIDR removal.

MGA Protocol

- Uses MGA (Melengestrol Acetate) to suppress estrus and control the timing of ovulation.

When Only One Shot Is Used

• GnRH – ovulation will occur within two days.

• PGF₂α – prostaglandin; animals will return to estrus within 5 days.

• CIDR – slow-release progesterone; animals will return to estrus within 2–4 days after removal of CIDR.

6. Mendelian Genetics and EPDs

Gregor Johann Mendel

• Austrian Monk, born in what is now Czech Republic in 1822.

• Son of a peasant farmer; studied Theology and was ordained a priest in the Order of St. Augustine.

• Attended the University of Vienna where he studied botany and learned the Scientific Method.

• Worked with pure lines of peas for eight years.

• Before Mendel, heredity was viewed as a blending process.

Mendel

Mendel was the first biologist to use mathematics to explain his results quantitatively.

Mendel predicted:

• The concept of genes.

• That genes occur in pairs.

• That one gene of each pair is present in the gametes.

Alleles

• Alleles = different versions of genes.

• May differ by only a single base (nucleotide).

Mendel’s Principles

Principle of Dominance

• One allele masks another.

• One allele is dominant over the other in the next generation.

Principle of Segregation

• When gametes are formed, pairs of genes become separated.

• Each sex cell receives only one copy of each gene.

Principle of Independent Assortment

• Members of one gene pair segregate independently from other gene pairs during gamete formation.

• Genes get shuffled, creating many combinations.

Dominance Types

Complete Dominance

- Dominant allele completely masks the recessive allele in a heterozygous animal.

Codominance

- Both alleles are equally expressed.

Incomplete Dominance

- Produces an intermediate phenotype between dominant and recessive traits.

Phenotype Relies On

Phenotype = Genotype + Environment + G × E Interaction

EPDs

What is an EPD?

• EPD = Expected Progeny Difference.

• Represents the value of an animal as a parent based on genetic value.

• EPDs are a comparative tool and must be compared to another animal or average.

EPDs (continued)

• EPDs estimate how much better or worse one animal’s offspring will perform compared to another animal.

• EPDs rely heavily on phenotypic information.

• Information may come from:

  • The animal

  • Siblings

  • Dam

  • Sire

  • Other relatives

EPDs Represent

• A “corrected” value.

• Environmental effects are removed using computer programming.

• Genotype data can enhance EPDs, but the foundation is phenotypic data.

Comparative Performance, NOT Actual Performance

Example:

• Sire A WW EPD = +100

• Sire B WW EPD = +75

Result:

- Calves from Sire B are expected to average about 25 pounds less at weaning than calves from Sire A when bred to similar cows.

How Are EPDs Calculated?

• Requires reliable phenotypic records.

• Sometimes indirect measurements are used.

• Example: Scrotal circumference is used as an indicator of fertility.

Basic EPD Calculation

\text{Progeny EPD}=\frac{\text{Sire EPD}+\text{Dam EPD}}{2}

Example:

• Sire EPD = +100

• Dam EPD = +108

\frac{100+108}{2}=+104

Progeny EPD = +104

Dominance Effects

• Epistasis = interactions between genes.

• These interactions can make actual performance differ from simple EPD predictions.

Using EPDs

EPDs should never be the only factor used for selection.

Other factors include:

• Phenotype

• Environment of origin

• Disposition

• Seller reputation

• Pedigree

• Relatedness to current herd

Reading EPDs

Most EPDs are reported in pounds above or below breed average.

Exceptions

• CED = percentage of unassisted births

• YH/MH = inches

• SC = centimeters

• Docility = gentleness score

Beef EPD Categories

Production EPDs

• Calving Ease Direct (CED)

• Birth Weight (BW)

• Weaning Weight (WW)

• Yearling Weight (YW)

• Residual Average Daily Gain (RADG)

• Dry Matter Intake (DMI)

• Yearling Height (YH)

• Scrotal Circumference (SC)

Maternal EPDs

• Heifer Pregnancy (HP)

• Calving Ease Maternal (CEM)

• Maternal Milk (Milk)

• Mature Weight (MW)

Management EPDs

• Docility (Doc)

• Claw Set (Claw)

• Foot Angle (Angle)

Carcass EPDs

• Carcass Weight (CW)

• Marbling (Marb)

• Fat Thickness (Fat)

Percentile Rank

• Percentile ranks show where an animal fits within its breed population.

• Lower percentile values are generally better, indicating the animal is superior to breed average (50th percentile).

7. Livestock Judging

Phenotype

• The outward appearance of an animal should be taken into consideration when selecting parents of the next generation.

• Different considerations are given typically based on whether an animal has been selected for the show ring or a production setting.

Two Ways to Evaluate Phenotype

• Phenotypic judging – producing and judging animals for the show ring.

• Production evaluation – producing and evaluating animals for their ability to perform a function.

Livestock Judging Contests

• Different classes of beef, sheep, swine, goats, etc.

• Four animals per class.

• An official judge will determine the placing of each animal and contestants are assigned points based on how close to the judge’s ranking they got.

Scoring a Contest

• After an official places the animals, they will assign cuts.

• Cuts represent how close a decision is between two animals.

  • A low cut of 2 represents a close decision.

  • A high cut of 6 represents an easy decision.

• Each class has a 50-point maximum score.

Beef Cattle

• Degree of muscling

• Finish or fat cover

• Growth capacity (frame size)

• Structural correctness

• Balance

Swine

• Degree of muscling

• Growth capacity / frame size

• Degree of leanness

• Structural soundness

Production Evaluation: Predicting Maternal Traits in a Cow

• Width of hooks and pins – calving ease.

• Average or moderate body size.

• Udder development – fatty udders have no room for milk.

• Femininity and angularity – can be indicative of adequate hormone production.

Production Evaluation: Predicting Maternal Traits in a Sow

• Udder development in a gilt at puberty can determine milking ability.

• Teat spacing, number, and placement.

• Condition should be considered – too much fat can keep an animal from carrying a pregnancy to term.

Production Evaluation: Longevity

• Structural correctness, especially in the feet and legs, can determine how long an animal’s productive life will be.

• Dentition – the number and quality of teeth can drastically impact how long an animal can live.

Completed Answers List

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Extraction complete. This covers the substantive text from all 34 pages of the document. I retained the source’s original claims and terminology rather than independently correcting or fact-checking them.