Comprehensive Guide to Sentence Structures, Clauses, and Relative Pronouns

Sentence Structures and Structural Classifications

  • Fundamental Classifications of Sentences:

    • Simple Sentence: A construction containing exactly one independent clause consisting of a subject, a verb, and a complete thought (complement).
    • Compound Sentence: A construction containing two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions or appropriate punctuation (such as semicolons), without dependent clauses.
    • Complex Sentence: A construction containing exactly one independent clause combined with one or more dependent clauses:     Complex Sentence=1 Independent Clause+≥1 Dependent Clause(s)\text{Complex Sentence} = 1\text{ Independent Clause} + \ge 1\text{ Dependent Clause(s)}
    • Compound-Complex Sentence: A construction containing at least two independent clauses combined with at least one dependent clause:     Compound-Complex Sentence=≥2 Independent Clauses+≥1 Dependent Clause(s)\text{Compound-Complex Sentence} = \ge 2\text{ Independent Clauses} + \ge 1\text{ Dependent Clause(s)}

  • Structural Requirements for Clause Identification:

    • To elevate a compound sentence (such as one consisting of three or four independent clauses) into a compound-complex sentence, at least one independent clause must be converted into a subordinate (dependent) clause, or a subordinate clause must be added.
    • Having multiple dependent clauses does not change the classification as long as the threshold of independent clauses is maintained: two independent clauses combined with two dependent clauses still constitutes a compound-complex sentence.

Subordinating Conjunctions and Dependent Clauses

  • Mechanics and Power of Subordinating Conjunctions:

    • A subordinate conjunction placed in front of an independent clause immediately alters its grammatical function, transforming it into a dependent (subordinate) clause.
    • If a subordinate clause is punctuated with a terminal period on its own, it functions as a sentence fragment.
    • Example transformation:
    • Independent Clause: "I like vanilla candy." (Contains subject "I", verb "like", and a complete thought).
    • Dependent Clause / Fragment: "Since I like vanilla candy." (The addition of the subordinate conjunction "since" strips its independence; without an attached independent clause, it is a fragment).
    • Subordinating conjunctions can be placed at the beginning of the first sentence, the second sentence, or subsequent sentences within a multi-clause construction.
    • A complete sentence requires the presence of an un-subordinated independent clause to anchor any attached subordinate clauses.

  • Catalog of Subordinate Conjunctions:

    • High-frequency subordinators: because, since.
    • Time- and condition-based subordinators: when, whenever, while, after, before, until, unless, although.
    • Critical grammatical distinction: "However" is not a subordinating conjunction; it is classified grammatically as a conjunctive adverb.

Rhetorical Hierarchy: Major vs. Minor Constructions

  • Intentionality in Syntactic Design:

    • Writers use subordination deliberately to reflect the relative importance of ideas within discourse.
    • Major Idea (Major Construction): The primary, most significant thought, which must be housed in an independent clause.
    • Minor Idea (Minor Construction): The secondary, less important thought, which should be placed inside a subordinate or dependent clause.
    • Writers must avoid burying a major thought in a minor construction.

  • Subjective Clause Weighting in Practice:

    • Analysis of two simple clauses:
    1. "I like vanilla candy."
    2. "It is healthy for blood sugar."
    • Scenario A (Highlighting candy preference as major):
    • Major Clause: "I like vanilla candy"
    • Minor Clause: "because it is healthy for blood sugar" (or "since it is healthy for blood sugar")
    • Result: "I like vanilla candy because it is healthy for blood sugar."
    • Scenario B (Highlighting blood sugar health as major):
    • Major Clause: "it is healthy for blood sugar"
    • Minor Clause: "Although I like vanilla candy"
    • Result: "Although I like vanilla candy, it is healthy for blood sugar."
    • Enhancing with conjunctive adverbs: "Although I like vanilla candy, apparently, it is healthier for blood sugar." ("Apparently" functions as an adverb/conjunctive adverb to emphasize the main clause).

Relative Pronouns and Relative Pronoun Clauses

  • Definition and Function:

    • A relative pronoun clause is a specific category of dependent clause introduced by a relative pronoun.
    • Relative pronouns establish the syntactic and semantic relationship between the relative clause and its antecedent.

  • The Eight Relative Pronouns:

    • who
    • whoever
    • whom
    • whomever
    • which
    • whichever
    • whose (spelled w−h−o−s−ew-h-o-s-e)
    • that

  • Structural Principles of Phrases and Clauses:

    • The classification of a phrase or clause is determined by the specific type of word that introduces it:
    • A subordinate clause must begin with a subordinate conjunction.
    • A relative pronoun clause must begin with a relative pronoun.
    • A noun phrase begins with a noun.
    • A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition.

  • Antecedent Matching Rules:

    • Human Antecedents: Governed by who, whoever, whom, whomever, and whose.
    • Non-Human / Organizational Antecedents: Governed by which, whichever, and that (words such as who, whom, and whose cannot refer to inanimate entities or organizations).
    • Interchangeability: Which and that are frequently interchangeable depending on clause restrictiveness.

  • Clause Isolation:

    • Words contained inside a relative pronoun clause cannot serve as the primary subject or main verb of the surrounding sentence.
    • Removing the relative pronoun clause leaves the independent clause intact.

Verbs: Action, Auxiliary, and Linking Verbs

  • Action Verbs:

    • Depict observable physical or mental actions (e.g., run, jump, walk, listen, talk, write, argue, debate, speak, sing, sit, stand).
    • Readily identifiable as predicates.

  • Auxiliary and Linking Verbs ("Be" Verbs):

    • Express a state of being or state of existence rather than dynamic action (e.g., is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been).
    • Often referred to colloquially as "be verbs."
    • Writers must memorize auxiliary and linking verbs because their lack of action makes them harder to recognize as true verbs.

  • Sentence Complements:

    • An independent clause requires a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
    • A complement adds the necessary word or group of words to a subject-verb combination to resolve meaning into a complete thought.

Sentence Errors and Editing Strategies

  • Differentiating Fused Sentences and Comma Splices:

    • Run-on (Fused) Sentence: Occurs when two independent clauses are merged together with zero punctuation.
    • Comma Splice: Occurs when two independent clauses are improperly joined with only a comma and no coordinating conjunction.
    • Diagnostic test: If there is no comma present between two joined independent clauses, the error cannot be a comma splice; it is a fused/run-on sentence.

  • Punctuation Rules for Independent Clauses:

    • Independent clauses may be linked using a semicolon (;;).
    • Colons (::) can link independent clauses under specific qualifications.

  • Analysis of Case Studies:

    • Case 1: Samantha / Thanksgiving Program
    • Uncorrected Run-on: "Samantha is a great speaker she says the welcome for every Thanksgiving program." (Fused boundary located between "speaker" and "she").
    • Determining Weight: Major thought = "Samantha is a great speaker"; Minor thought = "she says the welcome for every Thanksgiving program".
    • Antecedent: "Samantha" (human) requires relative pronoun "who".
    • Corrected Sentence: "Samantha, who says the welcome for every Thanksgiving program, is a great speaker."
    • Independent Clause Breakdown: Subject = "Samantha"; Verb = "is" (auxiliary/linking verb); Complement/Predicate = "a great speaker".
    • Dependent Clause Breakdown: Relative pronoun clause = "who says the welcome for every Thanksgiving program".
    • Case 2: Organization / Bylaws / Members
    • Uncorrected Run-on: "The organization has adopted new bylaws members…" (Fused boundary between "bylaws" and "members").
    • Antecedent: "Organization" (entity/organization, non-human) requires "which" or "that".
    • Syntactic Revision: Shifting structure requires altering syntax and adding necessary words to integrate both ideas grammatically:
      • Revision Option: "The organization, which has adopted new bylaws, wanted new members to be appeased with the updates."
    • Case 3: Protesters / Fair Housing
    • Sentence: "Protesters who have been gravely mistreated advocate for fair housing processes."
    • Relative Pronoun: "who".
    • Relative Pronoun Clause (Dependent Clause): "who have been gravely mistreated".
    • Independent Clause: "Protesters advocate for fair housing processes."
    • Subject of Independent Clause: "Protesters".
    • Verb of Independent Clause: "advocate".

Questions & Classroom Discussion

  • Discussion on Identifying Compound vs. Compound-Complex Sentences:

    • Question: What is required to change four independent clauses into a compound-complex sentence?
    • Response: At least one dependent clause must be created by adding a subordinating conjunction, alongside maintaining at least two independent clauses.

  • Discussion on Subordinating Clause Fragmentation:

    • Question: If the word "since" is placed in front of "I like vanilla candy", does it remain a complete sentence?
    • Response: No. Placing "since" in front of it turns it into a subordinate clause, which creates a sentence fragment if followed by a period.

  • Discussion on Identifying Run-On Errors:

    • Prompt: Identify the error in "Samantha is a great speaker she says the welcome for every Thanksgiving program." Is it a comma splice?
    • Response: It cannot be a comma splice because there is no comma between the clauses. The two sentences fuse together without punctuation between "speaker" and "she", making it a run-on (fused) sentence.

  • Discussion on Relative Pronoun Clause Boundaries:

    • Prompt: In the sentence "Protesters who have been gravely mistreated advocate for fair housing processes," what is the relative pronoun and what constitutes the full clause?
    • Response: The relative pronoun is "who". The entire relative pronoun clause is "who have been gravely mistreated". The independent clause is "Protesters advocate for fair housing processes", where "Protesters" is the subject and "advocate" is the verb.

Curriculum Requirements and Study Modules

  • Mandatory Knowledge Base for Upcoming Assessments:

    • Complete memorization of subordinate conjunctions to enable instant identification and sentence classification on quizzes.
    • Complete memorization of auxiliary and linking verbs ("be" verbs) representing states of being.
    • Complete memorization of all eight relative pronouns (who, whoever, whom, whomever, which, whichever*, *whose*, *that*).

  • Learning Management System Modules:

    • Location: Modules →\rightarrow Grammar Usage Mechanics
    • Assigned sections: Transitions, Coordination, Part 1, and Part 2: Relative Pronouns.
    • Preparatory requirement: Complete and review the five practice sentences in Part 2 prior to Monday's session.