Feed Manufacturing and Technology (FM 425)

Topic 1: History and overview of the feed industry

  • learning outcomes

    • describe how the formula feed industry began in the US

    • describe the objectives and general structure of the modern feed industry

    • summarize current industry statistics

  • history of formula feed manufacturing

    • the first opportunity for the formula feed industry to be of service arose from the great demand for a good horse and mule feed

      • in the late 1800’s, livery stables were almost as common as service stations are today

    • development of animal feeding

      • Thaer, 1810 developed 1st feed standard

      • Weende experiment station developed proximate analysis system (moisture, protein, fat, fiber, ash)

      • Wolff, 1864 published 1st feeding standard based on digestible nutrients

      • henry Morrison, late 19th century developed feeding standard that was used for 50 years

      • national research council (NRC), 1944 developed feed standards for different species

      • as the industries of wheat and corn milling, meat packing, milk processing, and oilseed processing grew, waste materials that were dumped in rivers and streams were stopped by governmental law

      • the feed industry was spawned by the necessity to dispose of these human food by-products

      • chemical analysis of these “waste” by-products confirmed basic nutritional value

  • history of ingredients

    • commercial feed industry developed from by-products from the milling, meat packing, and oil seed processing

      • molasses, 1850

        • from sugar cane or feed production

      • meat scrapes, 1890

        • was originally fertilizer

      • brewers’ by-products, 1900

      • soybean meal, 1922

      • animal fats, 1954

      • amino acids, 1977

      • ethanol DDGS, 1980

        • distiller grains

  • history of equipment

    • feed manufactuing equipment has changes as feed mills adapt their processes to use various by-products and improve the nutrient value of ingredients

      • steel rolls to grind grains, 1870’s

        • grains and meat

      • hammermills, 1890’s

        • grains

      • horizontal batch mixer, 1909

      • pellet mills, 1930’s

        • original designe from Europe

      • vertical pellet coolers, 1950’s

      • automated feed mill, 1975

      • post pellet liquid application 1990’s

  • history of feed regulations

    • the government has been regulating feed since 1906 when the federal food and drug act was passed

      • association of feed control officials, 1909

      • federal food and drug and cosmetic act, 1938

      • FDA - good manufacturing practices, 1965

      • FDA - current good manufacturing practices, 1986

      • FDA - BSE rules, 1997

        • for mad cow’s disease

      • FDA- VFD rules, 1999

        • veterinary feed directive

      • FDA - bioterrorism act, 2004

      • FDA - food safety modernization act, 201l

Modern Feed Industry

  • objective of manufacturing feed

    • fulfill nutritional and physiological requirements

    • competitive price ($/lb. or $/kg feed)

    • profitable cost level ($/lb. or $/kg meat)

    • fulfill statutory demands

    • fulfill regulations

    • control, reduce or eliminate potential hazards associated with feed

  • business objectives

    • commercial feed mills

      • sell feed for profit

      • customer service

      • meet state laws

      • meet the customers need

    • integrated feed mills

      • delivery nutrients to animals for optimal performance or meat production

      • low-cost high volume

    • on-farm

      • utilize grain grown on the farm to raise animals

      • minimize feed input costs

  • feed types

    • commercial industry (produces the most feed)

      • complete feeds (meal and pellet)

      • supplements (meal)

      • pre-mixes/base mixes (meal)

      • toll milling (meal and pellet)

    • integrated industry

      • complete feed (meal and pellet)

      • limited number of ingredients

      • 24/7

      • typically for one species or a very limited number of species

    • on-farm feed manufacturers

      • own use no outside sales (meal)

      • might combine commercial feed too

  • feed is a global industry

  • global feed production

    • us and china count for 1/3 of the feed production

  • global feed production by species

  • U.S. feed production by species

  • chicken is the largest sector because they don’t require as much space as cattle or pigs

    • most populations eat poultry

    • they only really need food and water

  • estimated US feed production by region

  • North Carolina by the numbers

  • broilers

  • layers

  • turkeys

  • hog and pig inventory

  • beef cow inventory

    • top states

      • Texas

      • Nebraska

      • Missouri

      • Oklahoma

      • South Dakota

      • Montana

      • Kansas

      • Florida

      • Iowa

  • dairy cow inventory

    • top states

      • California

      • Wisconsin

      • New York

      • Idaho

      • Pennsylvania

      • Minnesota

      • Texas

      • Michigan

      • New Mexico

      • Ohio

  • feed management responsibilities

    • requires current knowledge of feed market

    • understand international factors that affect the feed business

      • animal production trends

      • grain production trends

    • grain and feed ingredient markets

    • new technological developments in feed manufacturing

    • government regulations

  • feed industry resources

    • feed mill training an education

      • AFIA - American feed industry association

      • NGFA - national grain and feed association

      • Kansas State University

      • North Carolina State University

  • future of feed manufacturing

    • Schoeff (1961) wrote “the challenge facing the formula feed industry today is formulating, manufacturing, and distributing quality feeds to the livestock and poultry farms that will enable them to provide quality products at the lowest possible cost”

  • career options

    • facility management

    • allied industries

    • quality control

    • regulatory affairs

Topic 2: Monogastric Feeding Program Introduction

  • learning objectives

    • explain the relationship between nutrition and feed manufacturing

    • describe what is meant by a “feeding program”

    • recognize key information related to poultry and swine feeding

  • What is a feeding program?

    • mechanism to deliver nutrients to the animal based on a specific composition of the feed

    • critical component of the food chain

      • program decisions influence the wholesomeness of the food product

    • strategic plan to supply animal production objectives

  • feeding program objectives

    • nutrients (energy, protein, etc.)

    • health and constant production

    • production goals based on business model

      • cost/ROI (return on investment)

      • consumer demand

      • consumer retention

  • responsibilities of a nutritionist

    • 1. determination of nutrient requirements under different environmental and managerial conditions

    • 2. estimation of nutrient content and digestibility of different feed ingredients

    • 3. determination of optimum feed forms or feeding systems

    • 4. complete 1-3 with an understanding of the available feed manufacturing resources

  • responsibilities of the feed mill

    • 1. ensure incoming ingredient quality

    • 2. manufacturing feeds according to the specifications laid out by the nutritionist

    • 3. control processes to avoid any contamination, nutrient imbalances, or other hazards

    • 4. get feed to the animal

  • responsibilities of the farm

    • 1. oversee animal health and welfare

    • 2. keep up with feed needs and inventory

    • 3. conduct necessary management activities:

      • 1. animals have feed

      • 2. animals have water

      • 3. lighting

      • 4. ventilation

  • feed formulation

    • set ingredient restrictions

      • which ingredients

      • minimum

      • maximum

      • equal

    • set nutrient restrictions

      • which nutrients

      • minimum

      • maximum

      • equal

  • ingredient restrictions

    • min/max

      • anti-nutritional factors, quality, handling, dustiness, etc. will determine max. inclusion

      • example - wheat (bulky, fine, dusty → may not flow well)

      • example - fat → max. inclusion typically 7% (flow and handling problems)

    • tricky ingredients

      • sat and limestone (calcium). they are cheap and will often appear in the ration at excessive levels

  • nutrient restrictions

    • which nutrients

      • AA

      • energy

      • calcium and phosphorus

      • Na and Cl

      • vitamins and minerals

Topic 2: Monogastric Feeding Programs: Poultry

  • objective of feeding poultry

    • formulate the least-cost feeds that meet nutritional requirements

      • satisfy maintenance, growth, reproduction health, and welfare of poultry

    • optimize a feed schedule to meet poultry product market requirements

      • meat birds: whole bird, cut up, further processing

      • eggs: whole consumer eggs, breaker eggs

    • maximize integrated poultry production efficiency

  • nutrition and feeding programs for broilers and turkeys (meat birds)

    • nutritional requirements are usually the amounts and proportion of nutrients that produce a market weight bird in the shortest possible time with the least amount of feed

      • max weight for age (ADG); min feed/gain

    • max breast meat yield for cut-up and further processed birds

    • exceptions:

      • when protein cost is high (high soybean meal prices); lower dietary protein levels may be cost effective even though birds will take longer to reach market weight

      • when energy cost is high (high fat prices), lower dietary energy levels may be cost effective even though feed: grain ratio (feed conversion ratio, FCR) increases, or feed efficiency reduces

  • nutrition and feeding programs for laying and breeder birds

    • nutritional requirements are associated with amounts and proportion of nutrients that produce the fittest birds for reproductive purposes

      • increased egg production rate, egg size, fertility, number of settable eggs, hatchability

    • lowest feed cost per dozen of eggs or kg of egg

    • lowest feed cost per chick or poult hatched

    • nutritional content of consumer eggs

      • e.g. higher vitamin content and high omega-3 eggs

  • feed programs for broilers

    • broilers (to 5,6,7, or 8 weeks of age)

      • 3-6 feed phases

    • broiler breeder pullets (and cockerels)

      • 3-4 feed phases to 22 weeks of age

    • broiler breeders (hens and cockerels)

      • 2-3 feed phases from 22 to 56 weeks of age

    • starter feed (21-23% CP; 3000-3300 kcal/kg)

      • pre starter sometimes fed 1 to 10 days

      • 1 to 14 or 21 days of age

    • grower feed (19-20% CP; 3000-32000 kcal/kg)

      • 14 or 21 to 35 or 42 days

    • finisher feed (17-18% CP; 3000-3200 kcal/kg)

      • 35 or 42 to 42 or 49 or 56 days of age

    • withdrawal feed (17-18% CP)

      • = finisher feed without medications for period required by law

  • feeding programs for layers/breeders

    • pullet flocks

      • 0-6 weeks: 18% CP; 2850 kcal/kg

      • 6-12 weeks: 16% CP; 2850 kcal/kg

      • 12-18 weeks: 15% CP; 2900 kcal/kg

      • 18-20 weeks (1st egg): 17% CP; 2900 kcal/kg; 2% Ca

    • laying flocks (20-70 weeks of age)

      • feed formulation based on daily intake

        • 80 g/day, 19% CP; 100g/day, 15% CP; 120 g/day, 12.5% CP

    • molted flocks:72-108 weeks of age

  • important nutritional relationships that apply to poultry production

    • environmental temperature affects feed consumption

    • nutrient: energy ratios

    • amino acid balance

    • calcium: phosphorus ratio (Ca:P)

    • cation-anion balance (CAB) also called “acid-base balance”

    • nutrient concentrations decline with age

  • nutritional strategies and feed additives that influence enteric health

    • antibiotic enteric conditioners

    • coccidiostats (ionophores or chemical)

    • microbial enzyme supplementation

    • acidifiers and organic acids

    • herb, spices, and essential oils

    • oligosaccharides: FOS and MOS

Topic 2: Monogastric Feeding Programs: Swine

  • energy and nutrient concepts

    • requirements of pigs are calculated per day (g/d)

    • using feed intake, requirements are expressed as % of ration

    • energy concentration will affect feed intake i.e. more energy results in lower intake nutrients (%) are adjusted based on ME content

  • nutrient of concern

    • Na and Cl

      • salt is used to provide Na and Cl

      • typical inclusion

        • pre starter/ nursery - 0.1% (a lot of salt comes from whey products)

        • sows - 0.5%

        • grower-finisher - 0.35 to 0.5%

      • vitamins and microminerals

        • added as premixes

        • available for all phases of pig production

        • added vitamins and minerals vs total

  • objective of a nursery feeding program

    • provide a smooth transition from liquid to dry based diet

    • match diet composition to nutrient requirements of the weanling pig

    • maximize feed intake to take advantage of efficient gain

  • dietary needs of an early weaned pig

    • high nutrient density

    • high quality ingredients

      • high digestible

      • very palatable

    • diets are usually pelleted

      • ingredients are temperature sensitive → pellet at low temp

  • protein sources

    • sprayed dried porcine plasma

    • fish meal

    • soy protein isolated

    • milk proteins

    • blood meal

    • soybean meal

    • synthetics (Lys, Met, Thr, Trp)

  • milk products (lactose sources)

    • sprayed dried whey

    • whey permeates

    • lactose (pure)

  • fat sources

    • choice white grease

    • other quality fat sources (soy oil)

  • feed additives

    • flavors - based on sow milk

    • direct-fed microbials (lactobacillus, yeast)

    • acidifiers (citric acid, etc.)

  • sow diets

    • gestation

      • usually corn-soy with whet midds or soy hulls offered

      • typically, very little synthetic AA offered

    • gestation length about 114 days

      • (3 mo. 3 wks. 3 days)

      • feeding recommendations:

        • weaning to breed - ad lib.

        • breeding to d 30 - 4 lbs./d

        • d 30 to d 110 - to body condition

        • d 110 to farrowing - 4 to 5 lbs.

    • lactation

      • limit use of byproduct

      • high energy and AA diets

      • lactation length typically 14 to 21 days

      • feed ad lib. (approximately 12 lbs./d average intake)

      • may include laxative or antibiotics in diets

    • total sow feed intake/year = 2000 lbs./year

  • grower-finisher

    • typically corn + soy based

      • medications and other additives may be included

    • byproducts offered, in increasing amounts at heavier weights

    • synthetic AA offered. mostly lysine and methionine will likely be included

    • pigs are fed to meet maintenance and tissue growth requirements

    • growth = lean + fat + bone

    • lean = protein + water + fat

    • as body weight increases, AA requirements decrease

    • as feed intake increases less AA are needed in the diet

    • feed to match requirements:

      • fee barrows (castrated males) and gilts (females separate)

      • feed in phases

    • total feed intake for grower-finisher = 600 lbs./pig

    • it takes approximately 110 to 120 days to get a pig from 50 to 250 lbs.

  • summary

    • nutrition drives manufacturing

    • important to have defined feeding programs

    • feed formulation is fluid

    • specie variation

Topic 3: Feeding Ruminants: Cattle

  • learning outcomes

    • describe the objectives of feeding dairy and beef cattle

    • recognize ingredients typically used in ruminant feeds

    • identifying the processes involved in manufacturing and distributing ruminant feeds

    • describe manufacturing concerns related to different ruminant species

  • US feed production by species

  • US feed production by region

    • dairy is about 14 million tons

      • 28% pacific, 16% northeast, 14% lake, 3% Appalachian

    • beef/sheep is about 15.8 million tons

      • 37% southern plains, 28% northern plains, 13% mountains, 1% Appalachian

  • dairy cattle

    • feeding for milk production

      • amount

      • quality

    • must manage maintenance requirements

    • cycles

  • dairy formulas

    • associated with age and production rate

    • palatability is very important (flavor, color, texture), use of flavoring additives (milk and sugar by-products)

    • most commercial formulas are concentrates to be used with on-farm feeds (silage, hay, pasture)

    • products must be mycotoxin free (<200ppb aflatoxin) - consumer safety

    • antibiotics only for therapeutic (milk is set apart) or for young calves

  • dairy programs

    • heifers - birth to weaning (6-8 weeks)

    • receive 1 gallon of milk (replacer) + starter mix

    • starter mix

      • 18-22% CP, 80% TDN

      • grain: coarsely ground, cracked or rolled (palatable, induce rumen development)

      • expensive - change to grower diet when consuming 4-5 lb.

    • heifers - weaning to calving

      • usually fed a total mixed ration (TMR)

      • monitoring body weight

    • lactation

      • grains, forages, concentrates, supplements

      • AA requirement increases with milk production proteins

        • true: degradable (RDP), undegradable (RUP)

        • non protein nitrogen: highly degradable

      • important: particle size, rumen pH

  • beef cattle

    • feeding for meat production

      • growth

      • body composition

    • managing the rumen

    • environment

  • beef cattle formulas

    • grains

      • rolled or steam flaked

    • protein

    • forage

    • vitamins/minerals

  • additives and by-products

    • ionophores

      • coccidiosis control

      • efficiencies (feed, rate of grain, milk production)

    • rumen buffers (highly fermentable ingredients, small particles, abrupt change in diet)

    • by-products

      • decrease cost

      • stretch forage supplies

  • by-products

    • source of specific AA

    • increase dry matter intake

    • source of organic phosphorus

    • attention to mycotoxins

Topic 3: Feeding Ruminants: Sheep and Goats

  • in general

    • feeding programs are smaller to those for beef

    • for grazing animals, little supplementation may be needed

    • fresh water is the least expensive nutrient and yet it is often overlooked

  • supplemental forage

    • offered when pasture quality is low or supplies are limited

    • common sources

      • baled hay

      • range cubes

      • cotton seed hulls

  • energy

    • concentrated most commonly offered to:

      • females in last 4 weeks of gestation

      • lactating females

      • developing breeding stock and during breeding

      • growing, finishing young

    • excess dietary energy is stored as fat

    • sources: grain, milling by-products, molasses, fat

  • protein

    • most expensive component of dietary supplements

    • excesses not stored, but excreted mainly in urine

    • usually offered to achieve 12-16% of DM in diet

    • sources: oilseed milling by-products, non-ruminant rendered products, grain milling by-products, NPN

  • macro minerals

    • usually supplied free choice in loose mix or block form

      • formulated to be consumed at a specific rate

    • minerals may also be added to concentrates

      • salt, Ca, P, magnesium

  • micro minerals

    • also supplied by free choice mixes or block, or potentially in a concentrated feed

    • most likely to be lacking

      • Se, Cu, and Zn

  • vitamins

    • needed in small quantities

    • all b-vitamin and vK are synthesized by rumen microorganisms and so generally are not a problem

    • vC synthesized in body tissues

    • vD synthesized in skin if animals are on pasture and exposed to sunlight

    • vA most likely to be deficient

  • sheep peculiarities

    • sheep are very sensitive to excessive Cu in their feed

    • wool production may make sulfur AA first limiting

    • sheep are moderately selective eaters

    • sheep require vitamin E supplementation

  • goat peculiarities

    • goats are highly selective and very good at choosing what they wany to eat

    • high producing dairy goats may suffer from milk fever if Ca not adequate

    • protein requirements seem lower for goats than other species

  • ruminant implications for the feed mill

    • diet form?

    • all feeds are not the same

      • e.g. differences in mineral requirements (toxicities)

    • by-products can be readily utilized to improve profitability

      • energy sources

      • protein sources

    • fat content should be limited to prevent upsetting the rumen

    • use of flavorings may reduce sorting

    • may wish to add ionophores/coccidiostats

    • may wish to produce a vitamin/mineral supplement separate from energy and protein supplements (for grazers)

Topic 3: Feeding Ruminants: Blocks and TMR

  • Total mixed ration (TMR)

    • combination of:

      • forages

      • silages

      • byproducts (wet and dry)

      • cereals

      • concentrates

      • additives

  • horizontal auger mixers

    • uses one, two, three, or four augers to churn the feed

    • specifics

      • substantial bearing stress

      • high concentrate diets

  • vertical mixers

    • large tub with a single vertical screw

    • high horsepower requirements

    • heavy

    • high roughage mixer

      • accommodate large round bales

    • knife section attached to screw flighting and shear plates on tub wall to cut material

    • process rations with almost 100% hay

  • ingredient loading sequence

    • traditionally advised to:

      • load large particle size ingredients (forage) first

      • load heavier, smaller particles (concentrate) last

  • mixing time

    • consult manufacturer’s recommendations

      • many recommend 3-6 minutes after ingredients are loaded in mixer

      • additional mixing past recommended time decreases particle size, usually does not improve the mic, and can case segregation

  • feeding a TMR

    • dry matter

      • as moisture contents change, supply more or less feed to provide the same dry matter

    • total amount consumed

      • log the amount fed and the amount left

      • relates to the economy of feeding

    • monitor:

      • particle size

        • forage size has physiological importance

      • physical consistency

        • non-uniformity can be indicative of mixing issues

      • sorting

        • evaluate feed not consumed

  • liquid feeds and blocks

    • lick tanks

    • tubs

    • blocks

      • chemically hardened

      • pressed

  • poured block system

  • poured block production materials

  • poured block labeling

  • poured block process

  • pressed block system

  • pressed block mixing

  • formed blocks

  • pressed block labeling

  • pressed block shrink wrap

  • pressed block stacking and storage

  • summary

    • feeding strategies differ amount both production types and species

    • a wide range of ingredients can be considered

    • processing includes both on-farm and feed mill

Topic 4: Pets and Specialty Feeds

  • learning outcomes

    • identify general requirements for feeding horses, pets, aquaculture and exotic species

    • describe feed forms associated with the production of feeds for the various species covered

Horses

  • gastrointestinal tract of the horse

  • post-gastric fermentation

    • horses possess a relatively small composite (composed of non-glandular and glandular) stomach

    • microbes present in the cecum and colon break down structural carbohydrates present in forages

    • microbial fermentation provides the horse with volatile fatty acids (VFAs) which can then be used for energy

  • dietary requirements

    • high quality forages free of dust and toxins

    • high quality protein to meet the animals AA requirements

    • synthetic AA

    • macro and trace minerals

    • vit a, d, e, thiamin, and riboflavin

    • fat

    • water

      • 10-12 gallons/day

      • 15-20 in hot weather

  • importance of forages

    • 50% of diet composed of forages to promote proper digestion and gut health

    • the GI tract is just attached to the abdominal wall in one place. the bulk of the forage acts to “fill” the hind gut to prevent torsion or twisted gut. if not corrected immediately this condition will result in death

  • typical feedstuffs

    • pasture/forages/roughages

    • cereal grains

      • oats, barley, corn, and sorghum

    • molasses, fat, oil, or other ingredients may be added to diet to increase palatability

    • water

      • helps maintain gut fill and prevent impaction and colic

  • feed programs

    • maintenance

      • lower energy requirements than working horses or brood mare, crude protein requirement of 8-10%

      • good pasture or good quality hay, salt and mineral supplement

      • use common sense; some animals are easier to keep than others

    • performance

      • energy and protein requirements depend upon level of work

      • increased requirements may be met by increase intake

      • addition of fat (up to 15%) to the diet will increase the energy density

    • broodmares

      • nutrient requirements change throughout pregnancy and lactation

      • a grain mix should be supplemented in the last trimester to ensure adequate protein (10-11%), energy, minerals

      • lactating mares may consume up to 3% of their body weight in early lactation, protein requirements will increase 13-14% CP, energy and calcium may need to be supplemented

    • foals

      • milk replacers may be used if necessary

      • at weaning foals are fed for proper bone development and moderate to rapid growth

      • feeding proper amounts of energy, protein, Ca, and P is crucial to prevent stunted growth or problems with bone development

    • creep

      • aid in the transition from nursing to weaning

      • processed grain mixture mixed with molasses, supplemented with vitamins and minerals

        • CP 16-18%

      • at weaning, goof quality forage (min 1% of BW) and grain (14-16% CP) should meet the animal’s needs

    • geriatric

      • missing or worn teeth in older animals leads to decreased digestive efficiency

      • processing grain (cracking, rolling, crimping) or adding water to pelleted feeds can increase digestibility

      • adding energy supplements to the diet will help make up for decrease digestibility of other feedstuffs

  • considerations for ration formulation

    • corn is limited in horse rations due to the animal’s sensitivity to fumonisin

    • mills making both equine and ruminant feed may avoid using monensin due to the potential for cross-contamination of feedstuffs

  • manufacturing

    • pelleted feeds

      • control of pellet size, color, fines

    • textured (sweet) feeds

      • whole grain (oats), processed grain (flaked or rolled corn), molasses, pelleted supplement

    • bagged and bulk feeds

    • quality control

Pets

  • pet food production is a growing industry

    • over $10 billion industry in the US, generally shows consistent growth

    • dry-extruded pet foods are a larger market than moist-canned products

      • consumers perceive them to be healthier an easier to handle and store

    • low maintenance feeding of pets is popular due to modern, busy lifestyles

    • the health factor is a crucial driving force behind today’s pet food market

      • owners are emotionally attached to their pets and will do anything within their means to maintain their health to an old age

    • fresh pet food is an emerging market

    • raw diets are popular among some consumers, but face regulatory issues

  • pet foods require high quality protein meals

    • nutritional consistency

    • low ash content

    • high protein digestibility

    • absence of salmonella and pesticides

    • optimum palatability

  • high dietary rate of rendered by-products

    • about 25% of all meat by-products produced in the US are utilized in pet foods

      • inclusion rates of meat by-products in cat and dog foods are as high as 50% and 40%, respectively

    • a large variety of protein by-product meals produced by the rendering industry are used in the pet food industry

  • palatability

    • determined by the product formulation, size, shape, density, and texture

    • canned and soft-moist products are more palatable that dry pet foods because of their higher water content

    • higher density kibbles ten to be more palatable

    • palatability is enhanced by flavoring agents: liquid meat extracts, lipolyzed beef tallow, garlic, onion, sugars, beef or poultry digests, nonfat dried milk products

  • types of pet foods manufactured

    • dry expanded products

    • semi-moist products

    • soft expanded products

    • snacks

  • dry expanded products

    • these products are primarily made up of rendered animal protein meals, cereal grains, cereal co-products, soy and other plant products, milk products, fats and oils, minerals, and vitamins

    • dry dog food contains 5% to 12% crude fat to 18% to 30% crude protein

    • dry cat food contains 8% to 12% crude fat and 30-36% crude protein

    • typical extrusion moisture will range from 22% to 28% moisture content wet basis (MCWB) to produce a final product of 10% to 12% moisture content

  • semi-moist products

    • manufactured by extrusion processing using similar ingredients as in dry expanded products except the blend ratio of dry-to-wet, ranging from 80%:20% to 50%:50%

    • steam and water may be injected into the extrusion barrel to achieve desired moisture content of the finished product and facilitate extrusion cooking

      • typical extrusion moistures will range from 30% to 35% MCWB to achieve final moisture content of 25% to 35%

    • preservatives are included in the ingredient formulation to extend shelf-life

      • formulation pH is adjusted to 4.0 to 5.5 with organic acids, and antimycotic agents (i.e. potassium sorbate) and antioxidants (i.e. BHT, ethoxyquin) are also included

    • sweet flavors are added for dogs and acidic flavors are added for cats

  • soft expanded products

    • these are semi-moist product but contain a relatively high percentage of meat or meat by-products and are higher in fats and oils

    • products take on an expanded appearance after extrusion and have a lower bulk density than true semi-moist products

    • these products contain 25% to 35% moisture

      • same types of preservatives are used as in semi-moist products

      • same types of flavorings ae added as in semi-moist petfood

  • snacks

    • these products take on the shape of real bones, biscuits, or wafers

      • formed from a dough, shaped by cutting or stamping, and oven baking

    • some new extrusion techniques may be used to manufacture snack products with unique physical features

  • nutritional requirements of cats and dogs

    • national research council, national academy of sciences press.

      • nutrient requirements of dogs and cats

    • pet food companies

    • ingredients suppliers

aquaculture

  • general nutritional requirements

    • fish have a lower energy requirement than warm-blooded animals

      • protein and AA make up a larger portion of their diet

    • the skeletal support required for fish in water is lower than land animals

      • calcium requirements are lower

    • most fish, except tilapia, historically require dietary inclusion of fish meal (>15%) and/or fish oil to encourage feed consumption and provide omega-3 fatty acids

    • vitamin c

      • coated ascorbic acid or ascorbate polyphosphate to assure stability during and after feed processing

    • organic acid preservatives to prevent mold growth and an antioxidant to prevent oxidative rancidity of fats is typically included in the diet

  • types of fish feed manufacturing

    • extruded floating feed

    • extruded slow sinking feed

    • pelleted feed (sinking)

  • channel catfish

    • nursery ponds

      • swim-up channel catfish fry

        • fed 2-3 mm crumbles

        • fed 25% of body weight per day; fed hourly throughout the day

      • juvenile catfish (10 g)

        • fed 3-5 mm pellets or extruded pellets

        • feeding rates are reduced to 5 to 10% of body weights and fed 2-4 times per day

    • grow finishing ponds

      • grow-finishing catfish

        • fed 5-10 mm pellets; 32% CP and 2800 to 300 kcal DE/kg feed

        • fed 1-2 times per day, depending on water temperature

        • catfish need to be fed about 20% more feed when pond temperatures exceed about 80 F

      • most commercial catfish ponds are fed floating extruded feeds to allow observation of the fish during feeding

        • a mixture of sink pellets and floating extruded (85:15) can save 10-15% and still allows the management benefit of floating feeds

  • tilapia

    • these herbivores do not need fish meal

    • tilapia respond to more frequent feeding than catfish because of their continuous feeding behavior and smaller stomach capacity

      • fry should be fed at least 6-8 times per day and

      • larger fish at least 4 times a day

    • tilapia prefer pellets that are smaller than channel catfish and salmonids of comparable size

      • 1.25 tilapia (market size) require 3-5 mm pellets

    • pond-reared tilapia requires diets containing 24% crude protein, but higher protein (28%) is required when water temperatures are above 75 F

  • hybrid striped bass

    • these fish are voracious feeders and require several feedings per day

    • require high dietary protein content (35% to 45% crude protein)

  • rainbow trout

    • feeding frequency and daily feeding rates depend on fish size, genetics, water temp, and energy concentrations of the diet

    • optimum feed particle size:

      • 1-10 g fish: .5-1.5 mm pellets

      • 20-40 g fish: 2-3 mm pellets

      • 50-100 g fish: 3-4 mm pellets

      • >200 g fish: 5-7 mm pellets

    • feed pigments, such as astaxanthin (red-pink meat color) and canthaxanthin (orange color), is supplemented to achieve desired flesh color intensity

  • salmon

    • extruded or slow sinking feeds are typically fed to farm raised salmon

    • semi-moist diets are often fed to stimulate feeding

    • feed pigments, such as astaxanthin and canthaxanthin is supplemented to achieve desired flesh color intensity

      • crustacean meals or oils, phoffia yeast, and certain algae contain astaxanthin

    • daily feed allowance and feeding frequency vary with salmon species, size, temp, and moisture content of the diet

exotics

  • feeding exotic animals

    • what kind of diets are provided

      • feeds

      • supplements

      • produce

      • forages

      • meat

  • ingredients

    • typical commodities and protein sources

    • non-typical

      • poultry digest

      • rice flour, potato flour, pea flour

      • fruit and vegetable powders

      • pollen

      • kelp

      • flavors- banana, cinnamon, orange

  • manufacturing

    • pellets

      • appropriate size

      • concerns: stability, fines, acceptance

    • textured

      • blends of seeds, fruits, etc.

    • extruded

      • similar to pet foods

    • meals and liquids

    • tablets

  • diet preparation

    • soaking

    • mixing and blending

  • packaging and marketing

    • zoos and aquariums

    • retail

Topic 5: Major Ingredients

  • learning outcomes

    • identify major feed ingredients utilized in the US feed industry

    • describe the uses of major feed ingredients in the formulation of animal feeds

  • AAFCO

    • lists approved feed ingredients in the official publication (OP)

    • typically officially recognized ingredients are FDA approved

  • ingredient definitions

    • official definitions recognized b AAFCO or as an international feed name (IFN)

    • individual

      • corn

      • SBM (soybean meal)

      • DDGS

      • limestone

      • L-Lysine

      • methionine

    • collective

      • animal protein products

      • forage products

      • grain products

      • plant protein products

      • processed grain by-products

      • roughage products

      • molasses products

      • might not have all the listed incredients

  • Cereals

    • what are cereal grains?

      • seeds

      • 80% of protein source, 50% of calorie source for humans and livestock

      • cultivation and breeding were the foundation of agriculture

      • grasses that produce edible grain

      • common cereals are

        • corn aka maize

        • rice

        • sorghum

        • oats

        • wheat

        • barely

        • certain millets

      • largest crop category

  • corn

    • US corn acreage and yield

      • most used cereal grain

      • flat trend of corn harvested

      • but an increase in yield due to practices and genetics

      • a bushel is 56 pounds

    • US corn production

    • corn usage in the USA

      • most is feed to animal

      • 30% goes to ethanol but 9% of that goes back to the livestock

    • corn - history

      • probably originated from Mexico or Central America

      • cultivated by native Americans as far north as new England upon the arrival of colonists

    • corn - structure

      • endosperm as the largest part

    • corn co-products

      • hominy feed (dry milling)

      • DDGS

      • Corn germ meal (dry and wet)

      • corn gluten feed (corn starch or syrup)

      • corn bran

      • 29 AAFCO defined products

  • sorghum

    • aka milo

    • in the US sorghum production is one species known as sorghum bicolor

    • 3 main types produced

      • those cultivated for grain production

      • those grown for forage and silage

      • those (sweet types) used for sugars and syrups

    • sorghum - history

      • originated in Africa and Asia

      • grown for more than 5,000 years

      • 42,000 selections in the worldwide collection

      • 1900’s: grown in southwest due to its’s drought resistance

      • 1950’s: sorghum hybrids increase production

    • sorghum coproducts

      • hominy feed (dry milling)

      • sorghum gluten feed (corn starch or syrup)

      • sorghum DDGS (from ethanol or food alcohol)

      • 9 AAFCO products

  • oats

    • almost primarily grown for their seed

    • rolled oats (oatmeal and rolled oats) and animal feed

    • part of the horse diet

      • whole or grounded in pelleted feeds

    • might be in cattle, backyard poultry, and pet feeds

    • oats - history

      • Asia minor: origin of wild oat species

        • aka turkey

      • bronze and iron ages in central and western Europe

      • oats were established by 7th century in western Europe

      • China prior to 1000 A.D.

      • Northern Europe 1000-1500 A.D.

      • US - 1602 A.D.

    • oats - structure

      • oats have a fibrous hull which makes up about 25% of the weight

        • harvested with the hull

        • may be removed for processing

          • after removal the oat is referred to as an oat groat

    • oats coproducts

      • feeding oatmeal (rolled oats)

      • oat hulls

      • 6 AAFCO products

  • wheat

    • most widely grown food crop in the world

    • the US and Russia lead the production

      • the US has more per acre

    • other countries include Canada, China, India, France, Argentina, Australia

    • primarily grown for milling to produce flour

    • classified based on

      • color, hardness, and best use

    • classes of wheat

      • hard red winter: bread

      • hard red spring: bread and rolls

      • soft red winter: cake and pastries

      • white wheat: bread, breakfast foods, pastries

      • Duram: pastas

    • might be included in animal feed but typically not - expensive

    • wheat - history

      • earliest field crop 12,000 - 17,000 years ago

      • North America in 1520 by Spanish in Mexico

      • Elizabeth Island, MA 1602

      • Virginia colony 1611

    • wheat - structure

    • endosperm is high in starch - what makes it good for flour

    • the germ is the highest in oil

    • and the bran is the outer coat

    • wheat - coproducts

      • bran - course outer covering

      • middling’s - fine bran, short, germ, flour

        • <9.5% CF

      • shorts - fine bran, shorts, germ, flout

        • <7% CF

      • red dog - “tail of the mill”

        • <4% CF

      • 8 AAFCO

  • barley

    • grown in nearly all cultivated and temperate areas

      • areas include Europe, north and south America, north Africa, most of Asia and Australia, and the US (ND, Ca, Mo)

    • used mostly for malt and human food

    • it is also used for hay and silage

    • barely - history

      • origin from wild cultivar 35,000 - 40,000 years ago

      • near East samples dating back 9,000 - 10,000 years

      • recorded history 2000 B.C.

      • North America by Columbus (1492-1493)

      • Coast of MA 1602

    • barley - structure

    • large endosperm

    • 2 row barley has more starch and lower protein

      • ferments easier due to the lower protein

      • Irish

    • 6 row barely is higher in protein and more likely to be used in feed

      • American logger style beer

  • rice

    • China, India and Indonesia produce the most rice

    • in US production is in Arkansas, California, Luisiana, and Texas

    • 95% of the rice crop is used for human food

    • broken rice is used in animal feed and alcoholic beverages and pet foods

    • rice - history

      • origin

        • China: 10,000 - 12,000 BC

      • further cultivation

        • India: 2,000 - 3,000 BC

        • Europe: Middle Ages

        • US: late 1600’s

    • rice - structures

    • rice with the hull it is called paddy rice

    • rice without the hull with the bran is brown rice

    • rice without the bran is white rice

    • rice - coproducts

      • rice bran and hulls

        • high in cellulose

        • high in silica

      • broken rice

      • 10 AAFCO defined products

  • rye

    • mostly cultivated in Europe and Asia where Russia is the lead close Poland and Germany

    • in the Americas Canada and Argentina produce

    • in the US it is concentrated in the Dakotas

    • rye - history

      • most recent cereal grain

      • mentioned by Greeks and Romans

      • widely cultivated in Europe by the Middle Ages

      • Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries

    • rye - coproducts

      • rye mill rum

      • rye middling’s

      • 10 AAFCO defined products

Oilseed Co-products

  • world oilseed production 2019

  • soybeans

    • originally processed for its oil

    • high in protein and don’t have many antinutritional properties

  • world soybean products 2019

  • soybean meal use by livestock

  • methods of oilseed processing

    • solvent extraction

      • responsible for the largest amount of production

      • primary used by large processing mills/units

      • the beans are crushed the oil is extracted by hexane the solvent is reclaimed, and the flakes are toasted and ground

    • hydraulic press oil extraction

      • less common due to time utilization

      • soybeans are cooked flakes at 218-230 F for about 90 minutes then pressed for an hour

      • the residual is what can be ground up into the meal

    • extrusion-expeller oil extraction

      • popular among large companies, small enough to do the extraction on farm

      • the beans are tempered and crack and put into an extruder at 250 F< and the oil is expeller through a screw press

  • Sam soybean

  • expeller process

    • dry extruder - cooks the soybeans and ruptures the cell wall to facilitate oil extraction

    • heating is needed to deactivate the trypsin inhibiting enzyme/protein

    • expeller - removes the oil by pressing the soybeans

  • soybean processing products

    • soybean meal (47-48% CP): dehulled, solvent extracted

      • fed to all classes of livestock, primarily poultry and pig starter

    • soybean meal (44% CP): solvent-extracted

      • hulls fraction is blended with SBM-48

      • fed to swine and ruminants

    • soybean meal (42-44% CP): mechanical-extracted

      • fed to poultry and young pigs

      • contains 10% higher energy, higher protein digestibility, and lower moisture content than solvent-extracted meal

    • soy hulls

      • outer overing of the soybean, higher fiber content

      • fed primarily to ruminants

      • often pelleted to transfer and then added to TMR

    • soybean mill feed

      • soy hulls and offal from the tail of the mill resulting from the manufacture of soybean grits or flour

      • fed as a hay replacement for ruminants

    • soybean mill run

      • soybean hulls and bean meats that adhere to the hulls in the production of dehulled soybean meal

      • red to ruminants and in sow diets

  • canola meal/rapeseed meal

    • canola is major crop in Canada and the US

    • cool weather crops

    • advantages

      • protein is well digested by monogastrics

      • good AA balance

      • might improve pellet quality and manufacturing

    • common problems

      • potential problems with glucosinolates in meal

      • glucosinolates are bitter and reduce feed intake in animals

      • canola (low) vs. rapeseed meal (high)

  • peanut meal

    • advantages

      • protein is well digested by monogastrics

      • corn and peanut meal diets need to be supplemented with Met, Lys, and Thr

      • ~40% CP

      • may or may not be pelleted

      • will typically be used wherever peanuts are produced

    • common problems

      • peanuts that are unsuitable for human consumption may be contaminated with aflatoxin due to wet growing and harvest conditions and poor peanut drying

  • cottonseed meal

    • cottonseed meal is the by-product that remains after cotton is ginned and the seeds are removed

    • advantages

      • excellent protein source for ruminants

      • good source of tryptophan

    • common problems

      • high crude fiber content

      • high phytate (indigestible form of phosphorus) content

      • unbound gossypol binds iron and discolors egg yolks

        • toxic for monogastrics and calves

  • sunflower meal

    • sunflower meal is the by-product after the oil is removed from sunflower seeds that had the hulls removed

    • advantages

      • good source of protein and methionine for poultry

      • no antinutritional factors

    • common problems

      • high fiber

      • bulky ingredient

      • low in energy and lysine

Topic 6: Minor ingredients

  • learning outcomes

    • recognize common minor ingredients used in the manufacture of animal feed

    • describe the reasons minor ingredients are included in feed ration formulation

  • minor ingredients

    • a relative term influenced by:

      • formulation/species

      • process flow

    • typically, might include

      • specialty proteins

      • by produces

  • distillers dried grains (DDGS)

    • North America Ethanol Plants

    • primarily located where dairies and hog production so transportation is not a big factor

    • for poultry it will have to be transported through rail

    • Corn Ethanol process

    • the corn is grounded then combined with water

    • the mixture is sent through a jet cooker and cooled

    • enzymes are added to break down simple sugars and then yeast is added to convert the sugar to ethanol then is distilled and filtered

    • ethanol co-products

      • condensed distillers solubles

      • distillers’ wet grains

        • might just be sold wet to dairies for silages

      • distillers dried grain with solubles

        • for feed manufacturers

    • domestic production of DDGS

      • increase of production

      • beef and dairy eat the most DDGS

    • feeding DDGS

      • cost-effective protein source

        • AA are variable among sources and have an inferior profile (because corn has an inferior profile)

        • nothing supplementation can’t fix

      • variable energy value

        • depends on source and processing

        • over dried vs weather the oil was removed before processing

      • mineral levels can be highly variable among sources

      • some concern with feed acceptance

        • especially in young animals

        • also feed manufactures know that the DDGS will get stuck in the feed equipment

    • DDG have 3x the amount of fat and minerals as corn

      • the production produces 1/3 DDG 1/3 ethanol and 1/3 Co2 concentrating the non-starch fraction

  • animal by-product protein meals

    • sources of animal protein by-products

      • slaughtering plant by-products

      • hide and tanning by-products

      • keratinous proteins

      • hatchery by-products

      • animal, poultry and fish mortality

    • animal by-product flow

    • slaughter plant by-products

      • annual US production

        • 3+ million tons of inedible beef

        • 3.5+ million tons of inedible pork

        • 4+ million tons of inedible poultry

      • variety of by-products source streams:

        • offal, blood, feathers

      • rendered into by-products meals for feed and organic fertilizer

    • by products meals and fats

      • slaughter plant by-products delivered daily

        • offal, blood, feather or hair delivered separately

      • rendered fats

        • beef tallow, pork lard, poultry fat, fish oil

        • graded by the degree of saturation of FA

      • by product meals characterized by

        • predominant source

        • protein content

        • ash content

    • protein by-product meal blends

      • low as, high quality meat meals

        • highly digestible protein for pet food

        • single species source

      • meat and bone meals

        • typically, 50-55% CP

        • mammal tissues including bone

      • single species source

        • feather, blood, plasma

    • common animal byproduct meals and other products

      • by-product meals

        • poultry meal

        • poultry by-product meal

        • meat meal

        • meat and bone meal

        • animal by-product meal

        • blood meal

      • other animal by-products

        • poultry hatchery by-product

        • hydrolyzed poultry feathers

        • animal plasma (spray dried)

    • fish meal

      • not necessarily a by-product

      • two types

        • lean fish

        • oil fish

      • high quality protein

      • more expensive

    • lean fish (cod and haddock)

      • oil is stored primarily in the liver

      • fillets contain very little oil

      • low oil content (2-6%) since the livers are removed before processing

      • whole fish is not usually used

      • fillets are used for human consumption

      • contains a higher ash (minerals)

        • less meat more bones

      • white fishmeal constitutes only 10% of the world fishmeal production

    • oil fish (herring, menhaden, anchovy, pilchard, sardines, and mackerel)

      • store oil in parts of the flesh

      • high oil fish

      • commonly referred to as industrial fish

      • approximately 90% of the world fishmeal production

        • sustainability issues

          • population declines

  • milk and food by-products

    • milk byproducts

      • dried whey and whey permeate (whey with the solids and protein resulting in a product high in lactose aka dairy product solids)

        • granular

        • sprayed dry

      • milk lactose

      • milk products

        • chocolate milk blend

        • dried skin milk

      • whey protein concentrate

    • typical nutrient analysis

      • moisture content below 10%

      • product selected based on:

      • price relative to lactose

      • protein content

    • food by-products

      • food processes have products that are sometimes out of compliance due to manufacturing problems or being out of date

      • the products can be added to animal diets directly from the manufacturer of they may need to be processed

        • removing packaging or processing to make in homogenous

    • wheat milling by-products

      • wheat middlings

        • fine particles of bran, shorts, germ, and flour

        • most common milling byproduct

        • maximum 9.5% crude fiber

        • some energy value

        • flow poorly

        • help pellet quality

      • wheat bran

        • outer coating of the wheat kernel

        • contains 10-12% crude fiber

        • no energy value but used for ruminants

        • flow poorly

        • help pellet quality

    • bakery byproducts

      • bakery byproduct is recycled bakery waste

      • base products include recycled bread, dough, pasta, crackers, cereal, bagels, sweet goods, and snack chips

      • the mixture will vary based on the season

      • salt level is a concern

    • direct to the feed mill

      • snack companies will sell off-specification products as a feed ingredient

      • can have a wide variation depending on the product that is being manufactured and what problems occur

      • delivery may vary

    • salvage pet food

      • a product resulting from pet food manufacturing. this product may consist of, but is not limited to, start-up and over run product, unfinished pet food, pet food, pet food fines and other product not suitable for packaging for retail sale (AAFCO)

      • prohibited protein notification

      • must not contain harmful foreign materials

      • must be properly labeled for its intended use

    • distressed pet food

      • a product resulting from pet food distribution, but which is no longer available for retail sale. this product may be pet food in, but not limited to, dented cans, torn bags, product past its sell-by date, or returned product that is suitable use in feed (AAFCO)

      • same regulatory restrictions as salvage pet food

Topic 7: Minerals, AA, Vitamins, Additives & Premixes

  • learning outcomes

    • recognize common ingredients used in the manufacture of animal feed

    • describe the reason common ingredients are included in feed ration formulation

    • describe the properties and uses of premixes and other specialty mixes

  • ingredient classes

    • minor or micro based on inclusion rate

      • may be add by hand at a small plant

      • at a larger plant there might be an overhead bin

    • may include

      • minerals

      • vitamins

      • synthetic AA

    • additives

    • different forms to choose from

      • based on formulation

      • based on process

  • minerals

    • why are minerals added

      • different soil types and production systems

      • challenge to formulate using only major and minor ingredients bioavailability

    • macro minerals

      • calcium

        • skeletal development

        • enzyme activity and transmission of nerve impulses and muscle movement

        • closely linking with phosphorus and vitamin D

        • deficiency symptoms include:

          • rickets

          • osteomalacia (bone softening)

          • lameness and stiffness

          • muscle spasms

          • milk fever (lactating cows)

        • calcium sources

          • limestone (calcium carbonate) (38% Ca)

          • dicalcium phosphate (22% Ca)

          • monocalcium phosphate (16% Ca)

          • oyster shell (33% Ca)

            • mostly in poultry feed

          • rendered products

      • phosphorus

        • closely associated with calcium

        • physiologic utilizations

        • deficiency symptoms:

          • rickets and osteomalacia

          • stiffness and muscular weakness

          • poor growth

          • death (total P vs available P)

        • sources

          • monocalcium phosphate (21% P)

          • dicalcium phosphate (18.5% P)

          • defluorinated phosphate (18% P)

            • abrasive good for pellet manufactuing - expensive

          • phytase enzyme that breaks down phytate making that phosphorus available

            • the most substituted enzyme

            • not produced by the animal

      • potassium

      • sodium

      • chlorine

      • sulfur

      • magnesium

      • salt

        • sodium

        • chloride

        • salt deficiency

          • poor growth

          • changes in thirst

          • cannibalism

      • trace minerals

        • believed to play a role in immunity and reproduction

        • bioavailability concerns

        • typically premixed

          • can be added as per concentration

        • iron

        • zinc

        • copper

        • molybdenum

        • selenium

        • iodine

        • manganese

        • cobalt

Synthetic AA

  • introduction

    • competitive industry

      • multi-billion-dollar industry

    • geographically concentrated

      • Japan, US, South Korea and China

    • complicated manufacture

    • multiple uses

      • intravenous solutions

      • flavorings

    • valuable in least-cost formulation

      • we no longer have to formulate for limiting AA

        • there would be an access of other AA and excreted into the environment

  • AA

    • essential AA: animal cannot synthesize in its body

    • limiting AA: lowest amount in relation to the animals need

      • lysine in swine

      • lysine or methionine for poultry

    • AA imbalances

    • energy: AA ratio

    • protection

    • ideal protein

    • in ruminants we feed rumen protected AA so it is not digested by microbes

  • required AA for monogastrics

    • essential AA

      • often added

        • lysine

        • methionine

        • threonine

        • tryptophan

        • maybe isoleucine and valine

      • others

        • arginine

        • histidine

        • isoleucine

        • lysine

        • methionine

        • phenylalanine

        • threonine

        • tryptophan

        • valine

    • non-essential

      • alanine

      • aspartic acid

      • citrulline

      • cysteine

      • glutamic acid

      • glycine

      • hydroxyproline

      • proline

      • serine

      • tyrosine

vitamins

  • adding vitamins

    • important for growth and physiological functions

    • stability issues

      • oxidized with heat and light

    • protection

      • wax or gelatines

    • over-formulation

    • in premixes

    • used to be called vita-amines

      • was thought to be a group of AA

  • vitamins

    • A

    • D

    • E

    • K

    • thiamin

    • riboflavin

    • pyridoxine

    • pantothenic acid

    • folic acid

    • biotin

    • choline

    • B12

  • feed additives

    • nutrient feed additives

      • macro minerals

      • micro trace minerals

      • vitamins

      • AA

    • pro-nutrient feed additives (enhance nutrition, affect manufacturing, animal health, deworms (FDA regulated)

      • medications

      • antifungal agents

      • anthelmintics

        • FDA regulated

      • antioxidants

      • enzymes

      • direct-fed microbials

      • essential oils

      • fermentation products

      • herbs

      • pellet binders

      • surfactants

      • pigments

      • flavors

      • stool conditioners

      • buffers

premixes

  •    premix purpose

    • convenience of handling and storage

    • free up the number of ingredient bins

    • increase batch efficiency and reduce batching errors

    • optimize micro-ingredient article distribution in the feed

  • vitamin-mineral custom premix

    • blend of vitamins, macro- and/or trace minerals

    • commonly used for on farm mixers, and small feed mills

    • specifically formulated for a species and number of feeds

  • special product premixes

    • vitamin premix

      • specifically formulated for a species

      • feed inclusion level up to 2lb/ton

    • trace mineral premix

      • specifically formulated for a species

      • feed inclusion level of up to 4lb/ton

    • feed additive premix

      • a dilute feed additive

        • antibiotics. coccidiostats, mold inhibitor, enzyme, flavor, pigment, antioxidant, etc.

    • typically are mixed with carries

    • can also be formulated for a range of species at lower levels

      • just has to have the listed amounts of each ingredient on it

  • premix carriers

    • substances that can absorb liquids (take in through crevices or pores) or absorb liquids (adhere liquids to the surface of solids)

    • substances than can accept and hold fine powder without segregation or separation

    • the type of carrier used in a premix is dependent upon functionality, physical characteristics, type of active ingredient, cost, and availability

    • we need carriers because most of the vitamins and minerals are needed on a gram(s) per ton basis

      • the carriers bulk up the ingredients, so it is easier to measure and define

  • typical carriers used in premixes

  • properties of an ideal carrier

    • particle size similar to the active ingredient

      • may granulate for mixing and flowability

    • low moisture (<5%) and non-hygroscopic (doesn’t want water - no clumping)

    • low fat (<4%)

    • low electrostatic properties

      • no sticking to metal equipment

    • allow adequate adsorption and absorption

  • liquid binders for premixes

    • improve the handling characteristics of a premix

      • anti-dust agent

      • antistatic agent

      • prevent particles from desegregating and attaching to equipment

    • binders may include molasses, mineral oil, or vegetable oil

      • mineral oil is the most commonly used binder

      • vegetable oil is subject to oxidative rancidity and can destroy vitamins sensitive to oxidation

      • molasses can be negative because it is sticky and can create clumps

    specialty mixes

  • base mixes

  • protein supplements

    • base mix + blend of protein sources

    • may contain vitamins, macro minerals, trace minerals, pharmaceuticals, etc.

    • commonly used in both ruminant and non-ruminant feeds made on the farm or at small local mills

    • specially formulated for a species and feed type

    • if you add a cereal grain, you can make a complete feed

  • concentrates

    • blend of protein and concentrated energy source

    • contains macro minerals, trace minerals, pharmaceuticals and other feed additives

    • commonly used for ruminants and horses

      • should be used with forages

    • specially formulated for a species and feed types

Topic 8: Liquid Ingredients —

  • learning objectives

    • understand why liquid ingredients may be used in a feed manufacturing facility

    • describe some of the different possible types of liquid ingredients

  • why liquids

    • only available form

    • stored separately form dry ingredients

      • no bins needed and added flexibility

    • different routes to the mixer because it is liquid

    • dedicated receiving

    • can be added post-processing

      • after texturized feed and sprayed on if its not temperature tolerant

fats

  • introduction

    • animal and vegetable fats have been a common feed ingredient since the 1950’s

    • the impact of dietary caloric density on feed efficiency has long been recognized

    • supplemental fat is usually the most economical way to increase dietary caloric density

    • animal fat is a co-product of the rendering process/industry

    • estimated: 5 billion pounds of fats are used in the U.S. poultry and livestock industries, annually

  • fat types

    • cost and type will be based on availability, feeding requirements of the animals and the plant, geographic region

    • pure source animal fat - 100% single species

    • blended feed fat - blend of tallow, grease, poultry fat, and restaurant grease

    • blended animal and vegetable fats - blend of tallow, grease, poultry fat, restaurant grease, soaps, and other by-products

      • AB blend

    • vegetable oils - 100% single source

  • tallow and grease

    • swine

      • lard (typical human food)

      • choice white grease (typical in animal food)

    • poultry

      • poultry fat

    • generic

      • yellow grease

      • restaurant grease

      • typical a combination of fats

      • common precursors to biodiesel

    • beef

      • edible tallow

      • top white tallow

      • all beef packer tallow

      • extra fancy tallow

      • prime tallow

      • no. 2 tallow

      • a tallow

      • different types driven by the end product use

  • vegetable oils

    • cooking oils and salad oils

    • margarine and shortening - important to control oiliness and spread ability

      • saturation - hydrogenation

    • mayo - semisolid, 75-80% soybean oil along with eggs, vinegar, and some starch

    • vegetable fats rarely price into agricultural animal diets

      • typically, in blended fats

  • quality concerns

    • there is a large amount of variability associated with blend of animal/vegetable fats

    • quality issues associated with feed fats:

      • food safety - fat soluble toxins stored in fat tissues

        • naturally occurring

        • man-made

        • i.e. oxidation in poor storage, pesticides

      • feeding value - energy value and oxidative stability

        • GE

        • DE

        • ME

        • NE

  • fat storage

    • storage temp: dependent on outside temperatures and ingredient characteristics

    • fat in tanks should be rec-circulated to keep temp constant

      • stop solids

    • pipelines need to be heated

    • filters are needed throughout the system, particularly at unloading

      • no clogs or problems with pumps and meters

AA

  • AA

    • methionine

      • 2-hydroxy-4(methylthio) butanoic acid (HMB)

        • methionine hydroxy analogue (MHA)

        • aliment by novus international (88% Met)

    • lysine

      • liquid L-Lysine-HCl

        • AjiLys by Ajinomoto (50% L-Lysine)

  • background

    • multi-billion-dollar industry, and very competitive

    • major producers of AA

      • Japan

      • US

      • South Korea

      • China

    • AA are produced through fermentation or via chemical synthesis

    • all of the AA can be produced, but most of them are too expensive

      • liquid AA tend to be cheaper because they don’t have to go through an expensive drying process

other nutrients

  • other nutrients

    • choline

      • vitamin-like

      • important to fat metabolism and energy balance

      • choline chloride (60-75% choline)

      • water soluble

      • some can be synthesized by the body

    • betaine

      • naturally occurring, extracted from sugar beet molasses

        • helps maintain cellular fluid balances

        • methyl donor

      • energy sparing, methyl donation

    • corn steep liquor

      • concentrated soluble from the steeping process

      • contains:

        • free AA and di-peptides

        • high in vitamins and trace minerals

        • used in the liquid feeds industry

          • typically for tubs and lick tanks

    • glycerol

      • byproduct of biodiesel production

      • inexpensive source of energy

      • could lower the cost of pellets and lower the cost of fats

enzymes

  • enzymes

    • liquid or dry

      • liquid is typically used when the enzyme is added post manufacturing because it is not heat tolerant

        • added as a spray

    • improve nutrient digestibility

      • improve animal performance

      • reduce feed costs

    • very low inclusion rate

      • often 1 lb. per ton

    • expensive

    • management is key

  • commercial exogenous enzymes

product stability

  • product inhibitors

    • mold inhibitors

      • food safety

        • toxins

      • customer point of view

    • antioxidants (ethoxyquin)

      • vitamin stability

    • pathogen control

      • formaldehyde and propionic acid

        • can be hazardous to employees though

flavors

  • flavoring agents

    • anise

      • cover off-flavors for other ingredients

    • apple-berry flavors

      • for horses and deer

    • molasses

      • for horse and dairy cows

    • fishy flavors

      • for pets and fish

    • butter

      • for baby pigs and calves

  • water

    • excess moisture for feed spoilage

    • also, can help with production of pelleted feeds

    • has to be monitored like other liquid ingredients

    • make sure the water is free of bacteria and pathogens

  • summary

    • liquid ingredients can have significant value to the feed mill

    • many different types for many different purposes

    • have to be managed just as with any other ingredient in the facility

Topic 9: Commercial vs. Integrated Operations

  • learning objectives

    • describe primary differences between commercial and integrated feed milling operations

    • understand how these differences may impact production decisions

  • objective of manufacturing feed

    • fulfill nutritional and physiological requirements

    • competitive price ($/lb. or $/kg feed)

      • more associated with commerical

    • profitable cost level ($/lb. or $/kg meat)

      • more associated with integrated

    • fulfill statutory demands

      • lows such as labeling, reporting production

      • safety doesn’t change

    • fulfill regulations

    • control, reduce or eliminate potential hazards associated with feed

  • business objectives

    • commercial

      • sell feed for profit

      • customer service

        • no customers no money

      • might be one mill or multi-mill facilities

    • integrated

      • delivery nutrients to animals for optimal performance or meat production

      • low-cost high volume

        • feed lots of animal’s while being efficient and meeting the animals need with the lowest cost

  • feed types

    • commercial

      • complete feeds (meal and pellet)

      • supplements (meal)

      • pre-mixes/base mixes (meal)

      • tolling milling (meal and pellet)

        • manufacturing feed for a different brand

    • integrated

      • complete feed (meal and pellet)

      • rare that a producer will do toll milling

        • happens when they have a little more space

  • ingredients

    • commercial

      • impact of species types

        • swine and equine don’t eat the same

        • have to worry about sensitivities

        • what about certain specialties

        • will have to have a bunch of different types of ingredients

      • many additives

        • medications

        • premixes

      • smaller quantities offer flexibility

    • integrated

      • simplicity is preferred

        • fewest number of ingredients but as much of that ingredient as they can get

      • pricing has a greater impact

        • all about controlling cost

        • not a margin like in commercial

  • facility size and design

    • commercial

      • relatively smaller in the sense of capacity

      • more moving parts

        • could send things back

        • more complexity

      • space

        • large warehouses because of high amounts of additives

        • more labor

        • need the space for moving all of the ingredients

      • more worried about making the different types of feed

    • integrated

      • relatively larger

      • designed for low maintenance, long life

        • decrease maintenance

        • decrease labor

      • throughput focus

      • less amount of feed types

      • more worried about getting the quantity off feed out the door

  • equipment and automation

    • commercial

      • may be smaller

      • multiple sizes of same equipment

      • multiple types of equipment within an area

        • hammer vs. grinder

      • logistics management in automation

        • really important

    • integrated

      • sized throughput

        • most efficient

        • cannot be choke point with production

      • duplication of equipment

        • not different types of that equipment

        • also helps if the manufacturers around you have the same type of equipment, then spare parts are shared

      • automate for efficiency and reduced interaction

        • low labor and the labor can do different things like maintenance

  • staffing

    • commercial

      • more hands

        • manager, assisted manger stuff like that because task have to be delegated in bigger productions

      • office staff on site

        • invoicing

    • integrated

      • labor based on what is needed

        • a couple of maintenance, quality ensure, batcher, receiver, loader

      • shift variances

        • decreases at night

      • centralized business operations

        • not as much office staff

  • management

    • human resources

    • quality assurance

      • nutritional

    • safety

      • OSHA doesn’t tell the difference

    • regulatory

  • interactions outside the facility

    • commercial

      • customers

      • independent nutritionists and veterinarians

      • retail

    • integrators

      • growers

      • other units (nutrition, veterinary, transportation, purchasing, processing, etc.)

      • retail

  • summary

    • operationally more similar than different

    • small things make the big differences

Topic 10: Feed Mill Feasibility and Design

  • learning outcomes

    • list the steps involved in planning for a feed mill

    • describe the areas that must be considered in the design phase of a new mill project

    • compare the different options for mill construction

  • determine feasibility and mill objectives

    • company long-range plan

    • mill usage

    • set up planning group

    • set time schedule for planning

      • 1,3,5,10 year plan

  • company long-range plans

    • define and prioritize objectives

    • determine obstacles

    • determine personnel requirements

      • training

    • determine facilities requirements and costs

      • office space

    • assign responsibilities

      • develop schedule

    • establish measurements

    • determine administrative actions

  • feed meal types

    • commercial

      • manufacture feed for sale to customers outside the company

      • usually multi-species

      • blend of bulk and bagged feed

    • integrated

      • manufacture feed of own animals on contract or company farms

      • single species

      • bulk feed only

    • on farm

      • large independent livestock producer

      • single species

      • bag or bulk feed

      • the use of cereal grains already grown on site

      • don’t have to worry about transportation

  • define business plan

    • market area

    • feed sales and use potential

    • long range market forecast

    • marketing program

      • how to create customer demand

  • feed market area

    • grain surplus/deficit area

      • grain transport?

    • types of feed grains and other ingredients available

      • specialty grains

        • organic

    • future needs of the company

      • transportation, market share, volume

    • concentration and future trends of livestock and poultry production

      • market survey

  • feed sales and potential

    • what is happening in the market area

    • what is the potential to increase contract growers

    • feed volume

    • what about increase in animal numbers

    • conduct a survey on the following groups:

      • contract growers

      • company farms

      • independent farmer or customer needs

      • companion animals

        • backyard animals

  • product and services

    • formula feeds

      • complete

      • concentrate/supplement

      • premix

      • protein sources

      • medications

    • form of feeds

      • pellet vs. mash

      • bag vs. bulk

      • liquid

    • available ingredients

    • farm supplies

    • services

      • providing cracked corn or specific products

    • selling directly to the public or to another company

  • forecast feed market

    • determine area competition or feed manufacturing capacity

    • determine customer base or future expansion of local livestock industry

    • project share of feed sales

      • how the surround community is

      • the potential for growth

  • estimated feed consumption

    • based on the phases of the animal growth, how long each cycles there will be per year, how much the animal will eat

      • poultry

        • layers

        • broilers

        • heavy broilers

        • turkeys

      • swine

        • hog

        • sow

      • dairy

        • cows

      • beef

        • steers

  • feed product marketing

    • method of product distribution

      • franchise dealers

        • feed stores

      • direct sales

      • satellite mills

        • selling it to another company

      • typically, a combination

    • advertising and promotion

    • pricing and credit program

      • who are you selling to

      • backyard specialty = higher premium

      • growers will look for lower prices

  • mill design planning

    • assemble experts

      • internal committee

        • design, surveys, construction

        • if one company, does it all it is known as a turnkey

        • projects require the feed mill more involvement

      • consultant

    • schedule planning

      • design plan

        • blueprints, plumbing, electrical

      • internal review of plans

      • final design

      • bidding 2-4 months

    • freezing the plans - once everyone agrees with the plan, there is no turning back

    • construction - any changes made after the construction bids are awarded are very expensive

  • basic design questions

    • type of feed mill (commercial, integrated)

    • species (poultry swine, beef, companion)

    • weekly production (days, shifts, tons, how may days are we operating)

    • ingredient transportation (rail, barge, truck)

    • feed form (crumble, pellet, mash)

      • percentages

    • delivery method (bulk, bag)

      • percentages

  • feed mill design and site survey checklist

    • land availability

    • land use

    • climate

    • infrastructure

    • labor availability

    • preliminary structure design

    • equipment specifications

    • preliminary structural and equipment layout

  • plant site checklist

    • land availability

      • future expansion

        • grain storage

        • rail yard

      • neighbors

        • most feed mills are 24 hrs.

      • size of property

        • will it provide the pollutant buffer

    • land use

      • zoning

      • soil type

      • drainage

    • infrastructure

      • railroads - short line, mainline

      • roads

        • highways- 2,4 lane

        • bridges - weight rating

          • make sure feed trucks can go through the bridge

      • electric power - sub-station, rates

        • mills use lots of electricity

        • city limits

      • boiler fuel - natural gas, propane, fuel oil

        • natural gas is the lowest cost then propane

      • communication - internet, telephone

        • has to be reliable need a high-quality automation system

          • goes through the cloud

      • water and sewer - municipal, private, well, septic

        • rules with run off

      • waste disposal

    • labor availability

      • supervisors

      • operators

      • maintenance

        • typically, outside so it is hard to get people

      • skill level

      • average wages

    • primary structure design of the mill and grain storage

      • concrete, metal, combination

      • typically, a mixture

  • preliminary design

    • equipment specifications

      • need to last a long time

      • high quality

        • common suppliers

          • process equipment

            • i.e. broiler

          • material handling

            • type of spare parts

              • includes surrounding feed meals

        • cost

          • low initial cost

          • lifetime cost

    • preliminary structural and equipment layout

      • grain storage and receiving

      • grinding operation

      • mill tower

      • boiler room and maintenance

      • warehouses

      • offices and employee areas

      • manager’s location

    • safe working conditions

    • appearance

      • galvanized vs. paint

    • expandability

    • budget

    • long term maintenance cost

    • flexibility in design based on market changes

    • most important part

    • traffic flow

  • concrete mill structure

    • mill built on pylons or “floats” on soil

    • pilings

    • foundation slab

    • large “dead load” and small “live load”

      • dead load stationary

      • can’t really take vibrations

    • advantages

      • large volumes

      • height can be over 100 feet elevation

        • gravity flow

      • strong structural integrity

      • very long lifespan

    • disadvantages

      • expensive to build and more construction problems

        • high initial costs

      • limited structural shape

      • difficult to modify and expand

  • steel mill structure

    • built on piers or pilings anchored in bedrock

    • small “dead load” and large “live load”

    • advantages

      • any shape of structure

      • less expensive and fewer construction problems

      • easy to modify and expand relatively long lifespan if properly maintained

    • disadvantages

      • limited bin volume capacity

        • bin height typically does not exceed 60 ft

      • higher maintenance cost

        • rust

Topic 11: Mill Process Layout

  • learning outcomes

    • describe the factors impacting mill process flow

    • identify the process area within the feed mill

  • general operations flow chart

    • provides insight into present, proposed or revised process in a feed milling operation

    • outlines the operations performed

      • what events can be combined

      • can inspections be eliminated

    • operational capacities

      • can bottlenecks be eliminated or converted into storage

  • efficiency of material flow

    • individual machines: process capacity; design; compatibility

    • labor: operation and maintenance requirements

      • skill level

    • utilities: type and amount of fuel and utility services

      • peak verses off peak power costs

    • storage: local grain availability; delivery systems; final product number and amount

    • long term, short term, temporary storage needs

    • workspace: maintenance and work safety

      • cleaning ability

    • transportation: roads, rail systems, etc.

      • site traffic flow, truck staging area

  • material flow factors

    • arrangement of process

      • vertical vs. horizontal material flow

        • conveyer belts, gravity

    • sequencing and system flexibility

      • objective is to alleviate “choke points”

    • equipment capacity

      • should exceed normal flow by 15%

      • allows for expansion or less dense materials

    • future expansion

      • most plans plan for future expansion

        • have the space just not equipment

  • feed manufacturing plant capacity

    • ingredient storage

      • amount of product needed; frequency and size of delivery; bulk density of material

        • most dense less dense materials

    • conveyance

      • equipment; elevation; amount and type of material

        • spouting angles, how tall is the mill, physics

    • grinding

      • particle size; type of grinding mill

    • batch and mixing

      • mixer type; batching and mixing time, size of mixer

    • pelleting

      • pellet quality goals; type of ingredients in feed; conditioning process

    • finished feed storage and delivery

      • number of feed products; daily demand; load size

  • process flows

    • grains will typically go to the particle size reduction machine

      • grinder

      • hammer

      • roller

    • batch and then crush then mix with liquids

    • uniform size

    • doesn’t have to grind each grain

    • does require large hammer grinders to grind each batch

    • all ingredients are grinded together a second time (first time it is typically just the grains)

    • happens for feed for aquaculture are the need of really fine feed

    • roller mill for course grinding for pre-break

    • then hammer mill

    • less feed goes grinding

    • but much more complex

  • flow sheet

    • shows each machine

    • how everything flows

  • ingredient receiving and storage layout

    • receiving capacity

      • soft ingredients

        • 30-60 min/truck (25 Ton)

        • soybean meal

        • DDGS

        • wheat middling’s

      • minerals

        • 60-90 min/truck (25 T)

        • typically, nematic now

      • grains

        • 15-30 min/truck (25 T)

        • 10-15 min/rail (100 T)

      • liquids

        • 30-60 min/truck (25 T)

    • operations

      • 8-15 hr/day and 5-6 day/wk

  • particle size reduction layout

    • capacity

      • 50-85% of design capacity based on:

        • number of grain types

        • screen/particle size

        • only 50-85 because that’s the percentage of feed that needs to be ground

    • operations

      • 90-100% of manufacturing hrs.

  • batching and mixing layout

    • capacity

      • 90-100% design capacity

      • 3-4 min batch cycle

    • operations

      • 80-90% of operational hours

      • change over between types take the longest

  • conditioning and pelleting

    • capacity

      • commercial

        • based on feed types and pellet quality, 50-100% design capacity

          • depends one the feed

            • forages vs,

      • integrated

        • swine 80-120% rated capacity

        • poultry 100-150% rated capacity

        • turkey 80-100% rated capacity

      • operations

        • 80-90% depending on number of feed types, changeovers

  • feed storage and delivery

    • commercial

      • 1 bin per feed order

        • customer order

        • smaller bins

    • integrated

      • 1-3 bins per feed type

        • starter

        • grower

        • finisher

        • withdrawal

        • breeder/gestation/lactation

        • medication types

      • 1-2 days manufacturing

  • mill layout diagrams

    • facilities arrangement: arial view if buildings, roads, rail, storage

    • traffic flow, efficiency, and safety

    • housekeeping

    • biosecurity

    • side elevations

      • eliminates the need of a basement

    • floor plans

    • bin arrangement

      • need to figure out angles and where to put low flowing materials like DDG

    • equipment placement plans

      • cross section

  • summary

    • general flow must be understood

    • aiming for process efficiency and meeting capacities

    • various process flows depending on feed types

    • good design is key

Topic 12: Pet Food and Aqua Feed Facilities

Topic 13: Material Handling Equipment

Topic 14: Receiving and Storage