AP Human Geo Unit 7 Notes
10.1 Why does development vary among countries?
10.1.1 Development & Geography
The UN defines development as the process of enlarging people's ability to lead a long and healthy life, to acquire knowledge, and to have access to resources needed for decent standard of living
with access to these three elements people have greater opportunities to be productive, self-respect, and guaranteed human rights
Developing countries can be divided by the UN into high, medium, and low developing
Human Development Index
the HDI measures the level of development for each country by 3 factors: decent standard of living, long and healthy lives, and access to knowledge
each country gets an overall score on the combination of the 3
Highest possible score is 1 or 100%
Development Regions
HDI scores divide world into 2 developed regions and 7 developing regions
N America and Europe are the 2 developed regions
7 developing are:
Latin America, .76 most are high
E Asia, .75 China is high
S Asia, .64 most medium
SE Asia, .69 most medium
C Asia, .72 most medium, but wide variation between high (Iran) and low (Afghanistan)
SW Asia & N Africa, .7 medium, but wide variation Saudi Arabia (high) and Yemen (low)
Sub-S Africa, .54 most low
Sub-s Africa and S Asia have the lowest scores
some distinctive areas: Japan and South Korea; South Pacific is a mix; Russia in between
10.1.2 A Decent Standard of Living
Income
UN measures the standard of living through index called Annual gross national income per capita at purchasing power parity
GNI is output of goods and services produced in a country each year, including money that leaves and enters
PPP is an adjustment to GNI to account for difference among countries in the cost of goods
ex. country A resident has the same income country B resident but must pay more for a Starbucks coffee, the resident of country B is better off
GNI/total population=average individual contribution toward generating a country’s wealth
ex. US GNI in 2018 was $22 trilion/330 million= GNI per capita abt $60,000
per capita GNI was approx $44,000 in dd to $12,000 in dv
GDP is output of goods and services, but not money that enters/leaves
per capita GNI doesn’t perfectly measure level of development, but it shows average wealth
Dv and dd countries each have around half the world’s total GNI
Economic Structure
the share of GNI accounted by the primary sector has decreased in dv countries but it remains higher than in dd
share of GNI from the secondary sector has decreased in dd countries and is now less than in dv
from the tertiary sector is relatively high in dd and is now growing in dv
Productivity
dd is more productive than dv
World Bank measures productivity by: total GDP/number of persons employed
GDP per employee exceeds 100,000 in N America and Europe, while sub-S Africa is at 10,000
10.1.3 Access to Knowledge
UN considers years of schooling to be most critical to have access to knowledge
HDI Education Measures
UN combines two measures of years in schooling
Years of schooling for today’s adults:
# of years the average person 25+ spent in school
average of 12.2 in dd and 7.3 in dv
Expected years of schooling for today’s youth:
predicts an average 5-year-old in dd will have 16.4 yrs
in dv, average of 10.1 years
Other Education Indicators
Pupil/teacher ratio: the fewer pupils a teacher has, the more likely each will receive effective instruction
literacy rare
higher % of GNI may be spent on education in dv, but still less is spent on education than dd
most books are published in dd, so students have to learn a lot in there non-native language
10.1.4 Health & Welfare
a goal of development is to provide nutrition and medical services needed for long and healthy lives
A Long & Healthy Life
UN selected life expectancy at birth (average # of years a newborn can expect to live at current mortality rates) to be the contributor to the HDI
ex. a baby born in 2018 would be expected to live to 72 world wide, 80 in dd, and 61 in sub-S
dd have a higher percentage of older people who have retired and received public support, and a lower percentage of children under 15 who are too young to work and must be supported by employed adults
# of young ppl is 6 times larger than the # of older ppl in dv
#s are almost the same in dd
95% of infants survive in dv, while 99.5% in dd
Consumer Goods
cars provide individuals with access to jobs and services and permit businesses to distribute their products
# of motor vehicles per person is approx 580 in dd and 102 in dv
Phones enhance interaction with providers of raw materials and customers for goods and services
# of cell phones also greater in dd than dv
internet facilitates the sharing of information with buyers in suppliers
Internet users: 900 in dd to 400 in dv
Transportation and communication products are vital to the economies functioning and growth in dd countries
in dv, those who have these products are clustered in urban areas, those who don’t, in the countryside
10.2 Where are Inequalities in Development Distributed?
10.2.1 Unequal & Uneven Development
Inequality-adjusted HDI
The IDHI modifies the HDI to account for inequality
under perfect equity, HDI and IHDI are the same
lower IHDI than HDI means the country has some inequality
highest inequality scores are in sub-S and S Asia
dd have lowest gaps
Core & Periphery
Immanuel Wallerstein described the relationship as core and periphery and developed the World-systems theory
countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America contain 3/4 of the world's population and nearly all of its population growth
however still in the periphery bc other countries/regions are wealthier
most developed countries are in the northern hem and developing in the south
10.2.2 Inequality Within Countries
Brazil and Turkey are one of the largest and most populous countries, and fall somewhere in the middle of the HDI pack
gap between HDI and IHDI is much higher in Brazil than Turkey
inequality can also be seen through differences in GDP per capita among states or provinces within the country
in both Turkey and Brazil, the GDP per capita is around 20,000 in the wealthiest areas in 4,000 in the poorest
much larger difference than found in dd countries
can also be seen in contrasts among neighborhoods within the largest cities of dv countries
high rise homes and family homes vs informal housing
Regional Inequality Within Developed Countries
dd also have regional internal variations in GDP per capita
in the UK, central London has 2x then some Northern communities
in the US, GDP per capita is 22% above the national average in the wealthiest region, New England, and 10% below in the poorest region, Southeast
the Southeast now has 90%, compared to 60% in 1950
Widening Inequality Within Developed Countries
regional inequality has been reduced in the US, but overall gap between rich and poor has increased
reduced in the 20th century bc dd used some wealth on health care and education, and provided financial assistance to the poor
Since 1980, inequality has increased in most dd, including the US and UK
10.2.3 Gender Inequality
UN uses 2 indexes to measure gender inequality: the Gender Inequality Index (GII) and Gender Development Index (GDI)
Gender Inequality Index
measure gender gap in the level of achievement in 3 dimensions: productive health, empowerment, and the labor market
similar methodology to the IHDI
score of 0 would be equal and a score of 1 means women are treated as poorly as possible
GII is .468 in dv and .170 in dd
Sub-s, S Asia, SW Asia & N Africa have highest levels largely due to reproductive health and also have relatively low female empowerment scores
21 countries, including 17 in Europe, as well as Canada have GIIs less than .1
US has a GII rank of 36, even tho it has a HDI rank of 12
US has much higher birth rate among teens
higher mortality rate among women at childbirth
% of women in legislature is lower
Gender Development Index
GDI measures the gender gap in the level of achievement for the same 3 dimensions as the HDI: income, education, and life expectancy
if females and males has the same HDI scores the GDI would be 1.0
overall GDI in world is .941, which means that the average HDI for all females in the world at .705 is 94.1% of the average for all males at .749
average in dd is .983, in dv its .917
lowest scores are the same as GII
GII Over Time
gender inequality has declined since the 1990s in all but 4 countries
greatest improvements have been in SW Asia & N Africa
modest growth in the US
10.2.4 Gender Empowerment & Employment
Empowerment: National Legislature
empowerment in this context: ability of a women to achieve economic and political power
GII measures 2 indicators: the % of seats held by women in national legislature and % of women who have completed some secondary school
only 3 countries Bolivia, Cuba, and Rwanda have a parliament or congress with majority women
highest % are in Europe, approx ¼
lowest rates are in SW Asia & North Africain the US, 24% of House of R were women in 2019, up from 19% pre 2018
In 2018, Canada had 26% and UK 32%
Employment
worldwide, 49% of women work outside home, compared to 75% of men
S Asia and SW Asia % N Africa have huge gaps, but E Asia and sub-S have smaller
Employment: Secondary School
worldwide, 62% of women completed some high school, compared to 71% men
in N America, girls are more likely to complete high school than boys
in Europe boys are slightly ahead
in dv, boys are much more likely
For every 10 boys in dv who attend hs, only 6 girls attend
especially high in S Asia
10.2.5 Reproductive Health
GII bases on 2 indicators: adolescent fertility rate and maternal mortality rate
Adolescent Fertility Rate
rate of 16 per 1,000 women ages 15-19 in dd and 48 in dv
below 10 per 1,000 in most European countries
in sub-S, contraceptive use is below 10% and rate is 110 per 1,000
rate in US (21) is 2x as high as European countries and Canada
especially high for African Americans and Hispanics-lack of economic opportunities
Maternal Mortality Rate
ratio is 16 deaths per 100,000 in dd and 171 in dv
highest rates in sub-S
UN estimates 150,000 women and 1.6 million children die each year from labor
declined worldwide by ½ over the past 3 decades from 350 in 1990 to 216 in 2015
improvements in sub-S and Asia
US is one of only 13 countries where rate has increased since 1990
Doing Geography: Measuring GII for the 50 US States
Empowerment: Legislators- no US state has majority women, however 40% in Arizona and Vermont, while only 11% in Wyoming
Employment: varies from 50% in West Virginia to 67% in Alaska
Reproductive health: births among teens varies widely from 10 per 1,000 in New England to over 30 in the South
10.3 Why do Countries Face Development Challenges?
World Trade
most countries liked the alternative of international trade during the late 20th to 21st
International Trade Triumphs
trade increased more rapidly than wealth
other countries succeeded, dv had many raw materials, and there was competition
Shortcomings of Self-Sufficiency
rejected bc of:
inefficient industries, lack of competitiveness, corruption, and the black market
India under self-sufficiency
limited foreign companies from importing and strong control over Indian ones
controlled imports by:
licenses, import limits, taxes, and nonconvertible currency
controlled its own by:
permits, subsidies, and government ownership
India under International Trade
adopted trade in 1990s
dismantled permits, taxes and quotas, and competition
increased quality of products
GDP increased from $80 to $300 to $1,900
Financing Development
dv countries get financial help mainly from direct investment or loans
Foreign Direct Investment
FDI has grown rapidly from $172 billion in 2002 to $646 billion in 2016
only 1/3 went to dd and 2/3 dv
1/3 of FDIs for dv went to China and 1/3 Singapore, Brazil, Russia, and Mexico
major source transnational corps
International Monetary Fund
major lenders are IMF and World Bank
IMF loans bc of balance-of-payments problems and do not fund specific projects
World Bank
funds mey to projects as well as support
money is from the sales of bonds to private investors
around $40 billion given annually with around:
14% to India, 5% each to CHina, Mexico, Turkey, Brazil, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Vietnam
World Bank and IMF were made at 1944 UN conference in New Hampshire to promote economic stability after WW2
Microfinance for Development
many dv business owners can’t qualify for regular bank loans, so microfinance
ex. Grameen Bank specializes in making loans to women, mostly artisans in Bangladesh and has grown to neighboring countries
Structural Adjustment
Loan Debt and Repayment
dv borrow money to make new infrastructure to make it more favorable for domestic and foreign businesses
World Bank has judged half its projects in Africa to be failures bc:
either projects didn’t function as intended bc of faulty engineering, the nations squander or spend the loan on weapons, or new infrastructure doesn’t attract anything
debt exceeds annual income in multiple countries and they cant repay
Stimulus or Austerity
Stimulus-
downturn, govt should spend more money than they collect in taxes
they need to stimulate the economy with infrastructure projects
once economy recovers, will be more in a position to pay off debts
Austerity-
govt should sharply reduce taxes so that ppl can revive the economy by spending tax savings
cut spending on govt programs
In US, stimulus strategy was put in place by Bush and Obama
after success of Tea Party candidates in 2010, more attention to austerity
European countries divided, may result in the demise of the euro
for dv to apply for debt relief, they must adopt an austerity program
Structural Adjustment Programs
Austerity is imposed through policy framework paper that outlines a structural adjustment program
reforms include:
spending only what it can afford, directing benefits to poor, diverting from military to health and education, investing scarce resources where they have most impact, productive private sector, and reforming the govt
critics claim poverty worsens by:
cuts in healthy, education, and social services that benefit poor, higher unemployment, loss of jobs, and less support for those most in need
some are considering return to self-sufficiency
IMF and World Bank now are supporting programs to reduce poverty and corruption
Debate It! Return to Self Sufficiency or No?
return:
trade causes the loss of some home jobs
unfair competitors that pay less and protect the environment less
not good protection against thefts of patents and intellectual property
don’t return:
trade generates more economic growth in long run
benefits consumers through lower prices
10.4 Why are Countries Able to Make Progress in Development?
10.4.1 Measuring of Progress
Indicators of Progress
GNI per capita- since 1980 had increased much more rapidly in dd than dv
Education- since 1980, increased abt the same in dd and dv
Life expectancy- since 1980, increased abt the same in dd and dv
HDI- gap has narrowed since 1980, increasing more rapidly in dv than dd
Sustainable Development Goals
the UN adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals in 2015 to reduce disparity to achieve by 2030, which replaced the Millennium Development Goals
End poverty in all forms everywhere
End hunger, improve food security and nutrition, and sustainable agriculture
ensure healthy lives and well-being
inclusive and quality education
gender equality and empower females
access to water and sanitation
access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, modern energy
inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment, and decent work for all
build resilient infrastructure
reduce inequality with and among countries
make cities inclusive, safe, resilient, sustainable
ensure sustainable consumption and production
take urgent action to climate change
conserve oceans, seas, and marine resources
manage forests, desertification, degradation, and biodiversity loss
peaceful, just societies
revitalize global partnerships for sustainable development
10.4.2 Fair Trade
variation of international trade that promotes sustainability
products are made and traded according to standards that protect everyone
focuses on products exported from dv to dd
raise awareness of deficiencies in international production and trade
Fair Trade Producer Standards
international trade can make it so dv country producers only earn a tiny percentage of what is sold to dd countries
in contrast, fair trade on average gives back 1/3
certain goals:
raising the incomes of small-scale farmers and artisans by eliminating some of the middlemen
distributing the profits and risks associated with production and sale of goods, or fairly among producers, distributors, retailers, and financers
increasing entrepreneurial and management skills of producers
promoting safe and sustainable farming methods and working conditions, such as prohibiting use of dangerous pesticides, herbicides, and promoting certain crops
many farmers and artisans join democratically cooperatives with several advantages:
funds can be borrowed to buy equipment and invest in improvement
materials can be cheaper
people who grow or make products manage allocation of resources and assure safe/healthy conditions
profits are reinvested in community instead of corporate owners
Fair Trade Worker Standards
not a high priority in international trade, negatives include:
oversight of conditions by govts and agencies is minimal
workers work long hours w/ poor conditions for low pay
children or forced labor
health problems from poor sanitation and injuries from unsafe precautions
injured, ill , or laid-off workers not compensated
Fair trade requires workers to be:
paid fair wages for basic needs
permitted to organize union and collective bargaining
protected by high environmental and safety
Fair Trade & Customers
most fair trade sales are in food
in N America, products have been mostly crafts like jewelry, textiles, ect
ex. Ten Thousand Villages, the largest fair trade org. in N America
Sustainability & Our Environment: Fair Trade for Local Workers
inspiration from local traditions
Dior created a copy of a Bihor, Romania and priced it at $40,000. the women fought back and documented Dior’s theft