Religion, Society & People of the Pacific

Defining Religion

  • Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relating to worship agreed upon by members of a group.
  • Examples:
    • Christianity and Islam believe in one god.
    • Hinduism and Buddhism have multiple gods.

Functions of Religion

  • Creates social harmony.
  • Provides emotional support (e.g., funerals).
  • Provides security (e.g., belief in heaven).
  • Provides guides for behavior.
  • Brings people together.

Role of Religion in Pacific Communities

  • Unifying role during crises:
    • Example: Multicultural peace and prayer vigil in Fiji during the 2000 coup.
    • Religion develops a sense of collective consciousness.
  • Encourages resistance to societal changes:
    • Example: Not allowing gay marriages and abortion in some Pacific Island states.
  • Encourages embracing change for betterment:
    • Example: Women’s church groups providing leadership training.

World Religions

  • Great diversity of religious affiliation across the globe.
    • Christianity
    • Judaism
    • Islam
    • Buddhism
    • Hinduism
    • Baha’i
    • Sikhism
    • Other

Christianity

  • Most popular religion with over 2 billion followers.
  • Centers belief around the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
  • Christians believe Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament.
  • The Christian Bible has two sections:
    • Old Testament: Original Hebrew Bible.
    • New Testament: Written by Christians in the first century AD.
  • Christians are monotheistic (believe in one God).
    • God created heaven and earth.
    • The divine godhead consists of three parts: the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit.
  • Jesus Christ is the son of God, sent to save humanity from sins.
  • Jesus gave his life on the Cross (Crucifixion) and rose from the dead on the third day (Resurrection).
  • Holy Book: Bible (Old and New Testaments, translated into many languages).
  • Key Beliefs:
    • Based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth (Jesus Christ).
    • Goal: To reach salvation, or eternal life with God in Heaven.
    • Sinners who are not sorry will suffer eternally in Hell.
    • Achieving salvation involves following Jesus' teachings and participating in sacraments.
  • God: Trinity (God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit).
    • Christians believe Jesus is human and divine.
  • Sects:
    • Roman Catholic
    • Orthodox
    • Protestant
    • All believe Jerusalem is the holiest city.
  • Practices and Rituals:
    • Sacraments: Sacred ceremonies experiencing the Holy Spirit.
      • Baptism: Introduction to Christianity, recreates Jesus' baptism.
      • Communion: Lord's Supper, recreates breaking of bread and sharing of wine.
    • All sects practice communion and baptism.
    • Seven other sacraments are not practiced by all sects.
  • Worship Services:
    • Ministers: Specially trained to carry out Christian teachings/ceremonies.
    • Ministers lead worship services in a church.
    • Most important services are usually on Sunday.
    • Experience sacraments, recite basic beliefs, pray, and read from the Bible.
    • The Minister gives a sermon about a Bible reading.

Islam

  • Origin traced back to 7th century Saudi Arabia.
  • One of the largest religions with over 1 billion followers.
  • Prophet Muhammad (circa 570-632 A.D.) introduced Islam in 610 A.D. after an angelic visitation.
  • Muhammad dictated the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam.
  • Muslims believe the Qur'an contains the perfect words of Allah.
  • Muslims are required to pray five times a day.
  • Beliefs are based on five pillars:
    • Belief in one god (Allah).
    • Ritual prayer.
    • Charity to the poor.
  • Five Pillars of Islam:
    • Shahadah: Declaration of faith - "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger."
    • Salah: Pray facing Mecca five times a day (dawn, noon, afternoon, evening, and night).
    • Zakat: Giving 2.5% of income to the poor/needy.
    • Sawm: Fasting during the holy month of Ramadan from dawn to dusk.
    • Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime, if possible.

Judaism

  • In 2007, there were 13.1 million Jewish people in the world, mostly in the U.S. and Israel.
    • 40.3% of the world’s Jews live in the U.S.
  • Originated in the Middle East over 3500 years ago.
  • Jews believe in one God with whom they have a covenant.
    • In exchange, Jewish people keep God’s laws.
  • The central religious document is the Torah.
  • Jewish traditional/oral law is called halakhah.
  • Spiritual leaders are called Rabbis.

Hinduism

  • Oldest living religion, dating back thousands of years near the Indus Valley.
  • Practiced by many people in India and Nepal.
  • Over 900 million followers worldwide.
  • Religion with various Gods and Goddesses.
  • Three Gods rule the world:
    • Brahma: the creator.
    • Vishnu: the preserver.
    • Shiva: the destroyer.
    • Vishnu's consort: Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity).
    • Shiva's consort: Parvati (worshipped as Kali or Durga).
  • Hindus worship different idols but believe in one God.
    • Idolatry is the wrong interpretation of Hinduism.
  • Hindus believe in reincarnation.
    • A person's fate is determined by their deeds (Karma).
    • Good Karma leads to a better life in the next incarnation.
    • Bad Karma leads to punishment for sins.
  • Other holy books: Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata.
  • Hindu priests are called pundits.
  • Hindus worship and respect animals and birds like cobras, apes, peacocks, and cows.

Confucianism

  • Based on the teachings of Kong Fu Zi (Confucius).
  • Confucius developed a practical philosophy for life and government.
  • Ideas focused on:
    • Proper conduct for all.
    • Respect for elders.
    • Education.
    • Government service.
    • Hard work.
  • Founded by Master Kong.
  • About 5 million followers, mainly in China and Korea.
  • Beliefs are built on accepted values and norms of behavior.
  • Human relationships involve defined roles and mutual obligations.
    • Each member should understand and conform to his/her proper role.
    • People acting rightly could reform and perfect society.
    • The state was perceived as a father for his people.
  • Confucius addressed topics such as heaven, spirits, and reverence of ancestors and rituals.
  • People's problems could be solved by their efforts and knowledge.
  • Emphasis on moral understanding geared around society’s central institutions.
  • Confucianism was part of the Chinese social fabric and way of life.
  • Main Ideas:
    • People should be respectful and loyal to their family members.
    • Leaders should be kind and lead by example.
    • Learning is a process that never ends.
    • Heaven expects people to behave well and act morally.

Buddhism

  • Founded over 250,000 years ago; a wide variety of forms emerged.

  • All share respect for the teachings of Buddha.

  • Rebirth:

    • Beings go through a succession of lifetimes.
    • Buddhism rejects the concept of a permanent self or eternal soul.
    • Rebirth is the continuation of a dynamic process determined by cause and effect.
    • Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms:
      • Naraka beings (hell).
      • Preta (hungry ghost).
      • Animals.
      • Human beings.
      • Asura (lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods).
      • Devas (gods, deities, spirits, angels).
    • Intermediate state between one life and the next.

  • Who is Buddha?

    • Born 25,000 years ago as Siddhartha Gautama (Shakyamuni).
    • Son of a king.
    • Mother had a dream of a white elephant entering her body.
    • Protected from the evils of the outside world.
    • At 29, encountered an older man, a sick man, a corpse, and a spiritual seeker.
    • Meditated under a Bodhi Tree until enlightened.

  • How they Choose the Dalai Lama:

    • After the death of the current Dalai Lama the High Lamas of the Gelugga Tradition and the Tibetan government search to find his reincarnation
    • They look for a boy who was born around the same time as the Dalai Lamas death. It can take around two or three years to identify the Dalai Lamas
    • The High Lamas might find out where the next reincarnation will he found by:
      • Dream- one may dream about some mark or location that they will identify the boy
      • Smoke if the previous Dalai Lama was cremated, they will watch the direction of the smoke and search there
      • Oracle lake- the High Lamas will go to a holy lake and watch for a sign from it in the form of a vision or some indication of the direction to search

  • Noble Eightfold Path:

    • Right View/Beliefs: know the truth.
    • Right Intention/Aspirations: free your mind of evil.
    • Right Speech: say nothing that hurts others.
    • Right Action/Conduct: work for the good of others, respect life.
    • Right Livelihood.
    • Right Effort: resist evil.
    • Right Mindfulness: control your thoughts.
    • Right Concentration: practice meditation.

  • Views of Human Nature:

    • Everything is impermanent, including sensations, feelings, thoughts, and consciousness.
    • Doctrine of anatta: no permanent self.
    • Human existence is a composite of five aggregates:
      • Physical forms.
      • Feelings or sensations.
      • Ideations.
      • Mental formations or dispositions.
      • Consciousness.
    • Humans have no soul or a permanent self; using the fire analogy

  • Beliefs
    * The Buddha is our only Master.
    * We take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha
    * We do not believe that this world is created and ruled by a God.
    * Following the example of the Buddha, who is the embodiment of Great Compassion (mahaa-karunaa) and Great Wisdom (mahaa-prajnaa), we consider that the purpose of life is to develop compassion for all living beings without discrimination and to work for their good, happiness, and peace and to develop wisdom leading to the realization of Ultimate Truth.
    * We accept the Four Noble Truths, nameley Dukkha, the Arising of Dukkha, the Cessation of Dukkha. and the Path leading to the Cessation of Dukkha and the universal law of cause and effect as taught in the pratiitya-samutpaada (Conditioned Genesis or Dependent Origination).
    * We understand, according to the teaching of the Buddha, that all conditioned things are impermanent and dukkha, and that all conditioned and unconditioned things are without self
    * Enlightenment
    * We accept the Thirty-seven Qualities conducive to Enlightenment as different aspects of the Pach taught by the Buddha leading to Enlightenment.
    * There are three ways of attaining bodhi or Enlightenment, according to the ability and capacity of each individual namely as a disciple (saavaka), as a Pratycka-Buddha and as a Samyak-sam-Buddha (perfectly and Fally Enlightened Buddha). We accept it as the highest, noblest, and most heroic to follow the career of a Bodhisattva and to become a Sanyak-sam-Buddha in order to save others.
    * We admit that in different countries there are differences with regard to the life of Buddhist monks, popular Buddhist beliefs and practices, rites and ceremonies, customs and habits. These external forms and expressions should not be confused with the essential teachings of the Buddha.

  • Three Forms of Buddhism
    * Mahayana
    * Mahayana Buddhism emerged in the first century CE as a more liberal, accessible infe of Buddhism
    * Mahayana Buddhism is the primary form of Buddhism in North Asia and the Far East, inckading China, Japan. Korea, Tibet and Mongolia, and is thus sometimes known as Northern Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhists accept the Pali Canon as sacred scripture with the Theravadans, but also many other works, the Sutras, which were written later and in Sanskrit.
    * Mahayana Buddhists teach that enlightenment can be attained in a single lifetime.
    * The Mahayana form of Buddhism tends to be more religious in nature than its Theravadan counterpart

    • Theravada
      * The Theravada form of Buddhism is dominant in southern Asia, especially in Sei Lanka, Myanmar (Burma). Thailand Cambodia and Laos. For this reason is sometimes known as "Southern Buddhism."
      * The authoritative text for Theravadas is the Pali Canon, an early Indian collection of the Buddhas teachings
      * The purpose of life for Theravadins is to become an arhat, a perfected saint who has acheived nirvana and will not be reborn again. As a result, Southern Buddhism tends to be more monastic, strict and world-renouncing than its Northern counterpart, and its approach is more philosophical than religious
    • Vajrayana
      * Tibetan Buddhism (sometimes called Lamaism) is the form of Mahayana Buddhism that developed in Tibet and the surrounding Himalayan region beginning. in the 7th century CE.Tibetan Buddhism incorporates and Yogacara philosophy, Tylic rituals,Theravadin monastic discipline and the shanianistic features of the indigenous religion, Boa. Among its most unique characteristics are its system of reincarnatinglamas and the vast number of dekies in its pantheon.

Types of Religious Organizations

  • Religions organize themselves in terms of institutions and structures.
  • Sociologists use concepts like denomination, sect, and cult.

Denomination

  • Various streams of beliefs and practices within churches, mosques, and temples.
  • Example: Christian church has Protestant and Catholic denominations.
  • Characteristics:
    • Membership tends to be from the middle class.
    • Bureaucratic with a hierarchy of positions.
    • Found locally, nationally, regionally, and internationally.
    • Embraces religious tolerance.

Sect

  • Small and relatively new group.
  • Breakaway group that may be in tension with the larger society.
  • May grow into a denomination.
  • Often an offshoot of a denomination.
  • Example: Within the Protestant faith, there are sects of Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Amish and so forth. On the other hand, within the Catholic Denomination, the sects include Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Spanish Catholic, Old Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheranism and Universal Catholics
  • Characteristics:
    • Break off from denominations.
    • Less formal and more emotional.
    • Charismatic leaders and uneducated ministers.
    • Attracts lower class status members.
    • Relies on active proselytization to recruit members.

Cult

  • New religious groups.
  • Beliefs are seen as strange.
  • Members show unusual devotion to a person, idea, or object.
  • Leaders use unethical methods of persuasion and control.
  • Example: Grace Road (GR) Church in Fiji.
  • Characteristics:
    • Small groups committed to a religious vision.
    • Rejects mainstream culture and society.
    • Membership from middle class status and those who are economically and psychologically deprived.
    • Headed by a charismatic leader.
    • Found locally, regionally, and internationally.
    • Flexible membership, easy to join and leave.

Classical Theorists Views on Religion

  • Max Weber
  • Karl Marx
  • Emile Durkheim

Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism - Max Weber

  • Weber studied attitudes of Protestants and Catholics in Western Europe in the late 19th century.
  • Protestants, particularly Calvinists, developed a rational worldview of hard work and thrift.
  • Protestant Ethic spread to America. Ben Franklin quote “A penny saved is a penny earned.”
  • Weber’s Concept of Religion
    * Notions of “the calling” (religious task set by god)
    * Predestination- god has already determined who is to be saved and damned; God only lets the worthy prosper i.e. those who work hard and tend to go to have these qualities i.e ascetic (abstaining from all wordly pleasures and comfort), frugal (saving and not consuming) and thrifty (cautious and wisdom with money) lifestyle are deemed to go to heaven and those who do not will be damned to hell.

Durkheim and Religion

  • Durkheim defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things… which unite in one single moral community called a Church."
  • Religion is an expression of creating social order.
  • The distinction between the sacred and profane:
    • The Sacred: Things set apart and forbidden, inspiring awe, fear, and wonder and surrounded by taboos and prohibitions.
    • The Profane: Ordinary things with no special symbolic significance.
  • Durkheim and Totemism
    * Studied a simple Australian Aboriginal clan society i.e. Arunta tribe.
    * Arunta clans made up of bands of kind which come together to perform rituals involving worship of a sacred totem and the clan’s emblem e.g a plant/animal which symbolizes the clan’s origins and sense of belonging.
    * A totem is an animal or other natural object that spiritually or symbolically represents a people and their common origin.
    * For Durkheim, when clan members worship their totemic, they are worshiping society, it inspires feelings of awe due to the power the totemic represents the dependence of worshipers
  • Collective Conscience
    * In Durkheim's view, regular shared religions reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social inter- relation. Taking part in shared rituals blinds individuals together, reminding them that they are part of a single moral community to which they owe their loyalty.
    * In this sense, religion also performs an important function for the individual, by making them feel part of something greater than themselves, religion strengthens us to face life’s trials and motivates us to overcome obstacles that would otherwise attempt to defeat us
  • Advantage
    * Religion is a ‘social glue’ that binds people with sacred rituals
    * Religion upholds basic social norms
    * Religion is a balm for the oppressed and marginalized
  • Disadvantage
    * It fails to address social inequality/conflict
    * Portrays a very passive picture of society
  • Durkheim studies religion as the fundamental institution of social life, upon which the collective identity is structured.
  • Religion unites members through the creation of a collective conscience. All religious expression is founded on the identification of members to a group.
  • Shared religious beliefs and values also reinforce the strength of the collective conscience.

Karl Marx

  • Religion was an opium (drug) of people which tended to encourage workers/working poor class to accept their subordinate role (suffering and exploitation) with a promise that in the next life, their status would improve or be more fruitful.
  • It is used by the oppressors to

Future of Religion

  • For Pacific communities, the church will continue to play an important role.
  • For diasporic communities, through religion they are able to express and maintain their cultural identity.
  • With advancements in Information Communication technologies, there are more creative means to spread the word of God.
  • People do not have time to attend to religious matters due to family and work commitments.

Conclusion

  • Religion plays an integral part in the lives of Pacific communities.
  • To understand one’s culture, sociologists must study its religion.
  • People tend to belong to various religious sub-groups which have their own structures, beliefs and places of worship.
  • Religion plays a positive role in one’s life but it has also challenges, which if not addressed can impact negatively on society.
  • There are various social perspectives shared by Sociologists who provide insights to understanding religion and society