GCSE Classical Civilisations Revision Guide - War and Warfare

Sparta at War in the Fifth Century

The Structure of Spartan Society

• Prior to the fifth century BC, Sparta conquered Laconia and Messenia.

• Spartan citizens were reassigned land, while natives (helots) worked the land, handing over a portion of their produce.

• Helots were enslaved laborers.

• Helots outnumbered Spartans, creating the risk of rebellion with imported slaves.

• In the 460s BC, a major helot revolt occurred after an earthquake, demonstrating the Spartan army's role in controlling the enslaved population.

• The perioeci lived in less fertile areas as craftsmen and traders (some landowners).

• They governed their communities but followed Sparta in war and foreign policy.

• The perioeci were integral to the Spartan army.

Training and Recruitment

• Plutarch suggests Spartan education aimed to create highly trained, loyal citizens from birth.

• Infant inspection: Weak or deformed babies were left to die on a mountainside.

• Education stages based on age:

  • Age 7: Joined the agoge.

    • Placed in packs led by a prefect (young man in late teens).

    • Whipped for offenses.

    • Basic literacy taught.

    • Emphasis on physical strength and obedience.

    • Music (singing and dancing) for choral competitions to instill precise movement and teamwork.

  • Teenager:

    • Barefoot training for speed and climbing.

    • Short hair, one coat to teach equality.

    • Rationed food to prepare for military campaigns; stealing food was encouraged (but punished if caught).

    • Public silence, eyes fixed on the ground to show respect.

  • Older Teenager:

    • Strongest youths joined the krypteia for survival training.

    • Sent to Laconia and Messenia with minimal rations, living off the land.

    • Plutarch suggests they killed helots considered a threat.

The Syssitia

• To gain full citizenship after the agoge, young Spartans had to be elected into a syssitia.

• A syssition had about fifteen members eating a simple meal nightly.

• During campaigns, members of each syssition shared a tent.

• The purpose was to build camaraderie and integrate different generations, which was essential for success.

Equipment and Tactics

• A hoplite was a fully-armed soldier.

• Basic uniform:

  • Tunic with bronze cuirass for torso protection.

  • Bronze greaves for leg protection.

  • Leather boots.

  • Helmets: Corinthian style (bronze, head protection, limited vision/hearing), later replaced with open-faced crestless helmets.

  • Long hair to appear more imposing.

• Weapons:

  • Shield: Wood and bronze, approximately one meter in diameter, inscribed with 'Λ' (lambda) for Lacedaemonians. Heavy, offering protection but requiring strength.

  • Spear: Wood with an iron head.

  • Sword: Short iron sword worn on a belt for close combat.

• Greeks commonly dedicated armor and weapons to gods for victory.

• Spartans mastered the phalanx: A rectangular formation of soldiers packed tightly together, charging and thrusting spears. Teamwork and discipline were crucial to protect the front line.

• Spartans avoided frequent engagements to keep their tactics secret, making them harder to counter.

The Structure and Command of the Army

• Campaigns led by one of the two kings (descendants of Heracles).

• The mora was the largest sub-division of the army.

• The enomotia was the smallest unit (approximately forty men from two or three syssitia).

• The taxiarch was a senior officer responsible for the kings.

• The Oath of Plataea emphasized loyalty and discipline, promising obedience to officers.

• The perioeci and helots served as hoplites and craftsmen.

• Helots carried equipment, cooked, and ran errands, also serving as light-armed troops. Masters carried spears to deter rebellion.

The Idealisation of War and Warfare

• Spartans valued a noble death in battle, enhancing their kleos (reputation), which was important to women.

• Mothers sent sons to battle with the phrase “either with your shield or on it,” emphasizing victory or death.

• Women were taught to show pride for fallen relatives.

• After the Battle of Leuctra, Xenophon noted women appeared bright and happy because of the loss.

• Deserters (tresantes) were deprived of citizenship.

  • Xenophon described their treatment: giving way in the street, rising for younger men, not appearing cheerful, and not imitating others.

• These punishments made death preferable to a deprived existence in Sparta, as beatings were generally reserved for slaves in other Greek cities, revealing how far they had fallen.

The Battle of Thermopylae

• Took place in 480 BC, resulting in Spartan defeat.

• Herodotus' account is the main source, based on spoken recounts that were potentially idealized.

• King Xerxes of Persia led the invasion against approximately thirty Greek cities defending their homeland. Some Greeks supported the Persian invasion.

• The Greeks sent an advance party of approximately 7,000 men (including 300 Spartan fathers led by King Leonidas) to block the Persians in a narrow pass in central Greece since it was the best place to hold off a large army.

• Xerxes consulted Demaratus (a deposed Spartan advisor who sided with the Persians), who warned of Greek courage and resistance.

• The Persians waited, hoping the Greeks would retreat due to their numerical advantage. A spy reported the Spartans combing their hair, which was interpreted as preparation for a glorious death in battle.

  • Day 1:

    • Xerxes sent in troops, resulting in heavy losses due to inferior equipment and skills compared to the hoplites.

    • The King’s Immortals (elite troops) were also beaten with losses.

    • The Spartans pretended to withdraw, luring in the Persians before turning to fight.

    • Xerxes was terrified throughout the day.

  • Day 2:

    • The Greeks rotated front-line troops for rest.

    • Ephialtes, a local Greek, informed Xerxes of a way to outflank the Greeks through a mountain pass.

    • The Greek troops defending the mountain pass withdrew upon learning of the approaching Persians. Their approach was the only reason for retreat.

  • Day 3:

    • The Greeks learned they were about to be surrounded, but the Spartans chose to remain because desertion was unthinkable.

    • Spartans fought with extreme bravery, using swords, hands, and teeth.

    • The Spartans knew of a prophecy from the Delphic Oracle foretelling either conquest or the death of a king.

    • King Leonidas died; Xerxes ordered his body decapitated and displayed on a stake.

• Memorials were dedicated to commemorate the Spartans' sacrifice, and they were remembered centuries later.

Key Terms

• Agoge: The training school for Spartan boys from age seven.

• Enomotia: The smallest unit of the Spartan army; includes about 40 men.

• Helots: Enslaved native inhabitants of Messenia and Laconia who worked for Spartan masters.

• Hoplite: Heavily armed Greek infantry soldier who fought in the phalanx.

• Krypteia: Period of survival training for the strongest Spartans in their mid-to-late teens.

• Mora: A Spartan army regiment.

• Perioeci: People who lived in less fertile parts of Spartan territory.

• Phalanx: Greek rectangular fighting formation.

• Syssitia: Dining clubs of around fifteen Spartan citizens that met every evening and shared a tent together on campaigns.

• Taxiarch: A senior commander in the Spartan army.

• Tresantes: Tremblers – the name given to Spartans who had deserted battle. They were deprived of their citizenship.

Athens at War in the Fifth Century

The Athenian Army

• Unlike Sparta, Athens had a large public treasury to fund campaigns.

• All adult male Athenian citizens (except those over sixty) were expected to serve in the military when required.

• Wealthy Athenians bought their own hoplite armor, but most men used shields and spears.

• 50-70% of the population served as light-armed troops due to equipment costs, throwing stones, javelins, or arrows from a distance.

• Wealthier men served in the cavalry, divided into ten units based on tribe.

• Athens was renowned for its navy but also had a strong land army known for siege craft.

• The army had ten regiments from the city’s ten tribes, subdivided into lochoi.

• Each tribe elected a strategos who made decisions for the army.

• The second most senior officers were taxiarchs.

The Athenian Navy

• Athens focused on naval power in the late 480s BC, expanding its fleet to around 200 ships to prepare for the Persian invasion, becoming the largest navy in the Greek world.

• The fleet consisted of triremes: long, thin ships with a bronze-plated ram at the front.

• Rowed by 170 men in three banks, often from the poorer classes who were paid for their service.

• Thirty men (including ten hoplites) served as marines, with four archers, a piper, steersmen, quartermaster, and triearchs.

• Athens used slaves and mercenaries from other cities as rowers due to a shortage of manpower.

• The navy was funded from the public treasury, including rowers’ wages and ship construction, supported by a super-tax (liturgy) on wealthy citizens.

• Wealthy individuals had to pay for something of civic importance, like the upkeep of a trireme, becoming known as a triearch.

• Bonus payments were given to attract the best rowers.

• Ramming ships became popular in the fifth century.

• The diekplous was a special skill where a ship sailed through a gap in the enemy line and quickly turned to ram the side, making it easier to withdraw.

• The Athenians had the largest navy in Greece and were fit and battle-ready for most conflicts, dedicating time to practicing rowing at the start of a campaign.

• They improved triremes, introducing the hypozomata to keep the ship in shape and add strength when ramming.

The Impact of the Military on Athenian Politics and Society

• Citizens could choose their war leaders annually.

• Athens established democracy in 508 BC, giving extensive power to citizens who could vote in assembly and serve in the political system.

• There were threats to Athenian democracy:

  • The Persian Empire.

  • Hippias, the former tyrant of Athens, sided with the Persians, hoping to regain power.

• The Persians attacked Athens in 490 BC at Marathon and the Athenians won with the help of allies from Plataea.

• This helped the development of democracy since the hoplites were drawn in from the middle ranks of Athenian society. The aristocrats depended on the hoplites for defense, leading to a growth in confidence amongst the common people of Athens.

• The Athenians led the Greeks to victory at Salamis.

• They increased the size of their navy throughout the 480s BC, considering it the best defense against the Persians.

• Rowers were primarily from the lower class.

• This victory helped establish democracy since Athens relied on its rowers for defense.

• Those who died in battle were highly esteemed; an Athenian leader made a speech in the city’s main cemetery, commemorating the war dead annually.

• The sons of fallen soldiers were educated at the state's expense and given armor upon entering adulthood.

• Aristophanes wrote plays objecting to the war and its effects, such as Lysistrata, where Athenian women attempted to end the Peloponnesian War with a sex strike.

• In 431 BC, Athenians brought all those in the countryside inside the city walls to protect them from Spartan attacks. However, this led to overcrowding and a plague that killed 75,000-100,000 people (25% of the population).

The Battle of Salamis

• After Thermopylae, the Persians marched south towards Athens, according to Herodotus.

• The Persian and Greek navies had been involved in battles near Cape Artemisium; the Greeks defended the south while being followed by the Persians.

• The Persians sacked cities that opposed them.

• The Persians sought to avenge the defeat at Marathon in 490 but found the Acropolis empty. They looted and burned the temples on the Acropolis.

The Athenian Strategy

• The Athenians sought advice from the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi for the best way to meet the Persian advance.

• Some Athenians wanted to remain in the city, but Themistocles persuaded them otherwise and became the tactical master who oversaw the Greek victory.

• Men enlisted to fight sailed to Salamis in triremes, while women, children, and the elderly took refuge in Aegina and Troezen.

Preparations for Battle

Greeks

• 21 different cities provided ships for the Greek fleet (380 ships in total).

• Athens provided 200 ships in total.

• There were divisions amongst the Greek commanders.

• Most cities from the Peloponnese wanted to move the Greek ships to the south so that they could support their land forces which were planning a blockade.
  *Smoke rising from Athens led to some ships taking fright and sailing away.

• Themistocles made it clear that the Greeks had no choice but to fight in the straits of Salamis. He held a meeting with Eurybiades and persuaded him to bring the commanders together.

• Themistocles made it clear that the narrow waters would help them make up for the fact that they had fewer ships that were heavier and slower. This meant not all Persian ships could enter at the same time

Persians

• The Persians drew their navy in Phaleron, in the harbor of Athens

• They had around 400-1,200 ships

• Every captain was in favor of fighting at Salamis except Artemisia, the queen of Halicarnassus. Her son fought on behalf of her, but she chose to fight for the Persians believing that an alliance with them would help her people

• Herodotus portrays Artemisia as a figure who was willing to stand up to Xerxes and urge him not to fight, suggesting that he should be prepared for a long-term and patient approach

The Battle

• The Peloponnesian crews and commanders panicked and planned to withdraw after seeing the Persian fleet at sea.

• Themistocles ordered his slave, Sicinnus, to tell the Persians that the Greek commanders were in dispute and planning to leave and that Themistocles supported Xerxes.

• The Persians believed him and moved their ships into the bay of Salamis, blocking the entrance to the straits. The Greeks prepared to fight.

• Themistocles delivered a rousing speech at dawn before the Greeks lined up according to their cities.

• The Greeks rowed their ships backwards before an Athenian ship rammed a Persian ship.

• The Persians did not understand the currents, and many ships turned, exposing them to Greek rams.

• The Greeks had the advantage of fighting in a narrow channel.

• The Persians had a superior number of men.

• Many Persians drowned, but Greek casualties swam to safety.

• Artemisia, to avoid being rammed by an Athenian ship, deliberately rammed one of her own ships to appear as if she had switched sides, causing the Athenian ship to retreat and creating confusion among the Greeks.

• Xerxes ordered the beheading of Phoenician sailors who complained about the efforts of some Greek ships fighting for the Persians.

Aftermath

• The Greeks won, and the Persian fleet withdrew to the north of Greece.

• The Greeks defeated the Persians on land at Plataea the following year.

• Herodotus believed the Athenians contributed the most to the victory, providing about half of the Greek fleet.

• Aeschylus’ Persians emphasized the Athenian achievement as leaders of the Greek naval force and idealized Athenian citizens as free men fighting against an empire of slaves to a tyrannical king.

Key Terms

• Diekplous: A naval maneuver where a trireme sailed through the enemy line of ships and turned at pace to ram the side of an enemy ship.

• Frieze: A horizontal sculpted or painted decoration depicting a scene or scenes.

• Hypozomata: Two stretched cables tied from one end of a trireme to another, keeping it in shape.

• Liturgy: A super-tax on wealthy citizens in Athens to fund important civic projects.

• Lochoi: Units of a tribal regiment in the Athenian army.

• Strategos: An elected general in the Athenian army; every tribe elected one each year.

• Relief: A carving that projects from the background material.

• Tribes: One of ten political constituencies in Athens. Every Athenian citizen belonged to a tribe, which made up a regiment of the Athenian army.

• Trierarch: A wealthy Athenian who captained and paid for the upkeep of a trireme for one year.

• Trireme: A Greek warship with three banks of rowers on each side.

The Roman Military in the Imperial Period

The Organization of the Army

• The Roman army was divided into units. The largest was the legion; during the time of the emperors, there were about thirty legions posted all over the empire.

• Following the civil wars in the first century BC, legions that had been opposed to each other were brought under the control of Emperor Augustus.

• Legions were numbered and named to celebrate their origins or achievements.

  • II Augusta, stationed in Britain, was named for its loyalty to Augustus during the civil wars.

  • IX Hispana was originally raised and recruited in Spain.

The Structure of a Legion

• The legions had additional support from 120 horsemen, who acted as scouts and dispatch riders.

• There were commanders and other roles that formed the entire legion.

Command of the Centuries

• A century was commanded by a centurion.

• The five centurions of the first cohort were known as the primi ordines ('those of first rank') and were the most senior members. The highest senior was known as the primus pilus, a senior position open to men over fifty for a year.

• Centurions were responsible for discipline and could beat soldiers with vine canes.

• The signifier (standard bearer) looked after the standards (military emblem, typically medallions on a pole, carried into battle) and was in charge of pay and savings.

• The optio was responsible for training.

• The tesserarius organized the guards and communicated passwords.

• The cornicen played the horn to sound orders to the soldiers.

Command of the Legion

• Individuals from the senatorial and equestrian (upper) classes served in the army for shorter periods than regular soldiers and were semi-professional.

• The legatus commanded the legion, was of senatorial rank, and was appointed by the emperor.

  • Typically, a man in his mid-thirties who had previously served as a tribunus laticlavius.

  • Held the position for around three to four years.

• There were six tribunes, one of whom held senior status as the tribunus laticlavius.

  • Aged 25 or under.

  • From the senatorial class.

  • Wore a broad purple senatorial stripe on his toga.

  • Posted to the legion, toured for two to three years, and did financial and legal administration.

  • Could return to the army as a legatus.

• The remaining five tribunes were the tribune angusticlavi, who came from the equestrian class.

  • Wore a narrow purple stripe on their togas.

  • Wealthy, educated men in their thirties.

  • Could serve as tribunes before returning to imperial civil service or commanding auxiliary regiments.

  • Acted as officers, completing administrative work, and overseeing troop welfare daily.

• The camp prefect was the most senior professional soldier in the legion and was responsible for all equipment and transport.

• The aquilifier protected the legion’s Aquila, carrying it into battle. This emblem, a gold eagle with outstretched wings on a pole, was important for showing the spirit of the legion. Its loss was a disgrace.

The Legionary Fortress

• The legionary fortress was the headquarters of the legion and shared common features.

  • Originally built of wood, but from the second century AD they were constructed in stone.

  • Rectangular in shape with a ditch, wall, and towers for defense.

  • Each side had a fortified gate.

  • The via praetorian led to the main buildings, including the headquarters (principia).

  • The via praetorian met the main cross-street of the fortress - the via principalis - which ran from one side gate to the other.

  • The via Quintana crossed the fortress on the other side of the main building.

  • The prinicipia was the administrative heart of the fortress.

  • The courtyard was surrounded by verandas, where notices were posted.

  • The basilica allowed the legions to assemble and hear reports because it contained a platform to legatus to speak.

  • There were rooms for clerks to check documents and pay.

  • The temple was at the centre, indicating its importance and the standards were kept around a statue of the emperor.

  • The praetorium was the private quarters of the legatus and was similar to a villa with central heating, a suite of baths, and entertainment.

  • There were hospitals and workshops.

  • Granaries kept grain cool and dry in all weather conditions.

  • Baths allowed troops to remain clean and healthy for battle.

  • Barracks were split by cohort and two rooms to one contubernium – one for sleeping, the other with a hearth for a living-room and kitchen.

• There was an amphitheatre on the outside of the fortress was used primarily for training, assemblies and parades.

• The legionary fortress at Chester was located between Wales and Brigantia with easy access via a head of an estuary and good access for shipping. Its amphitheatre could cater to 8,000 individuals.

Auxiliary Troops

• All auxiliary units were commanded by men of equestrian rank and lived in their own forts, separate from legionaries.

• The ala was the most important unit of the auxiliary, made up of 512 men, divided into squadrons of 32 horsemen (a turma).

• Every ala had a flag and each turma a standard.

• One cohort was mixed with both infantry and cavalry.

• These troops offered skills the legionary army did not have in abundance and were often sent into battle first because losing them was preferred to losing citizens.

• Becoming an auxiliary was favored because a man could win citizenship for himself and his children.

The Roman Navy

• The Roman navy was less important than the army in defending the empire and in conquests. Its main duties were:

  • Transporting land troops

  • Supporting land campaigns

  • Protecting coastal settlements

  • Suppressing piracy and supporting merchant shipping

  • Repelling who they considered to be barbaric

• Augustus established permanent, professional naval forces and three large naval bases in Forum Iulii, Misenum, and Ravenna to suppress piracy after the Battle of Actium.

• Fleets were drawn from non-citizens in the eastern empire, giving them the same status as auxiliary units.

• The praefectus (a man of the senatorial class) commanded the fleet.

• Squadrons of ships were led by navarchs.

Equipment and Tactics

Battle Tactics

• To begin a battle, a legionary threw his spear to kill or disable enemy soldiers before advancing with his sword and shield.

• Formations included the testudo, where soldiers placed their shields over their heads (except those at the front) to protect from artillery.

• Artillery included the ballista (like a crossbow, fired iron darts) and the onager (fired rocks and stones).

• Walls of a city would be broken with battering rams on wheels and siege towers would move forward.

Naval Warfare

• The Romans copied the construction of Carthaginian and Greek ships.

• The quadrireme had two banks of rowers with two men to an oar.

• The quinquereme had three banks of rowers (the top two and lowest two men had an oar, totaling 270 rowers).

• Hexaremes were flagships.

• Liburnaes were lighter ships used for scouting as they could move swiftly.

• Ramming and boarding (Greek tactics) were copied by the Romans.

• The navy started supporting land troops after the Battle of Actium (31 BC) because it faced little threat.

Recruitment and Training

Army

• All legionary soldiers had to be Roman citizens.

• Young men were enlisted after being examined by officers.

• Vegetius emphasized qualities needed:

  • Upright posture

  • Broad chest

  • Muscles and strong arms

  • Long fingers

  • Flat stomach and lean bottom

  • Toughness

• Carpenters, butchers, smiths, and hunters were suitable applicants and were medically assessed.

• Successful applicants received money for the journey to the legionary fortress and swore a military oath before training.

• Marching was a focus (twenty miles in five hours!), along with swimming, riding, running, and jumping.

• Thrusting with short stabbing swords was taught because those weapons inflicted more damage onto enemies. They hurled javelins at stakes and were expected to mount and dismount a horse while dressed in armor also.

Auxiliaries

• Recruited from non-citizens; sometimes foreigners from the provinces.

• Received full citizenship after 25 years of service.

• Their training was that of the legionaries but additionally formed the backbone of the cavalry squadrons.

The Navy

• Recruits were often non-citizens from different parts of the empire such as Greece, Phoenicia and Egypt, all of which had strong maritime traditions

• All sailors were expected to serve for 26 years before being given Roman citizenship upon honorable discharge and a cash payment

• Training involved learning to row, to time and to change pace as well as the basics in naval maneuvers. Building upper body strength was achieved through practicing rowing as much as possible

Payment

• Augustus created a professional army in the first century BC, paying salaries to army and navy personnel (about 300,000 men).

• The emperor was commander-in-chief, appointed senior officers, decided on campaigns, and claimed all victories.

• A legionary soldier earned 225 denarii per year during Augustus’ time; raised to 300 denarii under Domitian.

• Deductions were made for food, clothing, equipment, and a pension scheme (guaranteeing proper burial).

  • Maintaining the memory of the dead was important in the ancient world

• Upon honorable discharge, a soldier received 3,000 denarii or an allocation of land.

• Auxiliaries and sailors were paid 33% less than legionaries, with Roman citizenship being the primary incentive.

Key Terms

• Ala: Cohort of Roman cavalry (512 men).

• Aquila: The emblem of the legion – an eagle made of gold set on a pole

• Aquilifer: The legionary soldier responsible for carrying the Aquila

• Basilica: The large hall used for assemblies in a legionary fortress

• Ballista: A crossbow that fired iron darts

• Camp prefect: Right hand man to the legatus in a legion

• Century: A unit of 80 men in a legion (some could contain as many as 160 men)

• Centurion: The commander of the century

• Cohort: Cohort The largest unit in the legion; the first cohort had five double centuries; cohorts two to ten each had six centuries

• Contubernium: A unit of eight men in a legion who shared the same tent and dealt with their own mess arrangements

• Cornicen: The horn-player in a legion who sounded orders to soldiers

• Imperial Period: The period from 30 BC, when Rome was ruled by Emperors

• Libumae: Swift military ships used for scouting

• Legatus: Commander of a legion

• Legion: The largest unit of the Roman army

• Navarch: Captain of a squadron of naval ships

• Optio: The deputy of the centurion

• Onager: A catapult that fired rocks and large stone at enemies

• Praetorium: The private quarters of the legatus in a fortress

• Prafectus: Commander of a naval fleet

• Primi ordines: The five centurions of the first cohort of a Roman legion

• Primus pilus: The senior centurion in the legion

• Principia: Headquarters of a fortress

• Signifier: The soldier who was responsible for the standards of the century

• Standards: A Roman war flag – the emblem of a century – which often took the form of a set of medallions hoisted on a pole

• Tesserarius: The soldier in charge of the organisation of guards and the communication of passwords

• Testudo: Roman soldiers who advanced in formation with shields over their heads

• Tribunes: Six senior officers in the legion (after the legatus)

• Tribune angusticlavi: The five tribunes of equestrian rank in a legion

• Tribunus laticlavius: The senior tribune of a Roman legion, of Senatorial rank

• Turma: Cavalry squadron of sixteen horsemen

• Via praetorian: The road from the main gate to the principia in a fortress

• Via principalis: The road crossing the fortress in front of the principia in a fortress

* Via Quintana: The road crossing the fortress behind the principia in a fortress

The Romans at War

The Battle of Actium, 31 BC

Context

• Rome had been plagued by the civil conflicts throughout the first century BC, with individuals such as Caesar and Sulla attempting to win power and challenge the traditional government system of the Republic.

• Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC following his proclamation as being ‘Dictator in Perpetuity’ namely the ‘Roman Ruler for Life.’

• Mark Antony and Caesar’s great nephew Octavian aimed to continue Caesar’s legacy. They formed the Second Triumvirate and defeated Brutus and Cassius – Caesar’s assassins – at the Battle of Philippi

• The Treaty of Brundism gave each man a section of the empire to govern; Octavian was based in Rome and in charge of the west, whereas Antony based himself in the east and was in control of this region

• Egypt was a ‘client-state’ which meant that it was not a part of the empire but was required to follow Rome’s lead as a close ally. The country was fertile, allowing for the import of grain

• Caesar had previously had an affair with Cleopatra and bore him a son namely Caesarion. In 41 BC, she was summoned to Asia Minor to meet with Mark Antony. They came to have an affair, which was looked down upon in Rome because Antony was married to Octavia (Octavian’s sister) and Roman values did not tolerate bigamy. Cleopatra bore three children with Antony

• When Antony divorced himself from Octavia to pursue a life in Alexandria, it symbolized his ‘divorce’ from Rome

• Antony was portrayed as a traitor whilst Cleopatra was shown to be a witch namely a powerful, dangerous and untrustworthy woman

• In 32 BC, Octavian obtained a copy of Antony’s will which proclaimed that he wished to be buried in Egypt, alongside Cleopatra. The Roman people and Senate were appalled at this, and declared war on Egypt and Cleopatra. This meant that it would not be perceived as a civil war, but a war agains a dangerous, foreign power

Battle

• Antony mobilised all Roman client states and gathered at Ephesus with his forces, made up of 100,000 infantry men and 12,000 cavalry

• Octavian had a force of 80,000 men in the infantry, 12,000 cavalry and 260 ships. These were all commanded by Marcus Agrippa who was renowned for his reputation as an outstanding admiral

• Agrippa managed to block the supply lines to Antony’s forces, capturing the key locations at which his forces were located. On the island of Leukas he managed to organise a naval blockade

• The forces of Antony and Cleopatra were suffering from starvation and disease, which resulted in many deserting the cause.

• Antony could either abandon the fleet and withdraw his troops or break the blockade by fighting at sea. Cleopatra urged him to meet Octavian at sea in