1 - National Socialism and the Jews

Historiographical Frameworks of the Holocaust

• The Intentionalist versus Structuralist/Functionalist Debate

  • These represent the two primary schools of thought regarding the development of the Holocaust.
  • Intentionalism: This perspective argues that the persecution and eventual mass murder of European Jews was the result of a long-term plan formulated by Adolf Hitler and his inner circle, rooted in his ideology from the very beginning.
  • Structuralism/Functionalism: This perspective suggests that the "Final Solution" evolved over time through the chaotic competition of different Nazi bureaucracies and radicalization in response to circumstances on the ground, rather than as a single, pre-determined master plan.

• The Daniel Goldhagen Thesis: "Eliminationist" Anti-Semitism

  • In his $1996$ book Hitler’s Willing Executioners, Daniel Goldhagen proposed that a unique, virulent form of "eliminationist" anti-Semitism had been deeply embedded in German culture for centuries.
  • He argued that this cultural predisposition made ordinary Germans willing participants in the genocide once the Nazi regime provided the necessary context and permission.

Historical Roots and Evolutions of Anti-Semitism in Germany

• Continuity and Change in Anti-Jewish Sentiment

  • The study of National Socialism explores whether German anti-Semitism was a unique historical phenomenon or a continuation of broader European trends.
  • Traditional (Christian) Anti-Semitism: Historically rooted in religious differences and the theology of the early Church.
  • Modern ("Racialized") Anti-Semitism: A pseudo-scientific shift where Jewish identity was defined by inherited biological traits rather than religious practice.

• Influential Historical Figures

  • Martin Luther ($1483-1546$): The father of the Protestant Reformation is cited as a key historical figure for Nazi ideology.
  • "On the Jews and Their Lies": This text by Luther was a particular favorite of the Nazis, as it advocated for severe measures against Jews, establishing a precedent for state-led persecution in German history.

Ultimate Intentions and Pre-War Rhetoric

• Early Ideological Foundations

  • In Mein Kampf ($1925$), Hitler explicitly called for the "elimination" of the Jewish population.

• Radicalization in November $1938$

  • Das Schwarze Korps: The official newspaper of the SS published a piece calling for the ‘real and final end of German Jewry…’ and the ‘final extinction’ of what it termed a ‘parasitic race…’
  • Hermann Goering: Stated in November $1938$ that ‘all accounts’ must be settled with the Jews specifically in the event of a future war.

• The Reichstag Speech of $30$ January $1939$

  • Adolf Hitler delivered a significant speech to the Reichstag in which he made a "prophecy" regarding the fate of European Jews.
  • He predicted that if "international Jewish financiers" should succeed in plunging the nations into another world war, the result would be the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe.

Early Anti-Semitic Legal and Social Measures ($1933$)

• The National Boycott

  • An officially sanctioned boycott of Jewish-owned stores was organized by Julius Streicher in April $1933$.

• Legislation Targetting Professionals

  • $7$ April $1933$ - Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service: This law was used to remove Jews (and political opponents) from government jobs and professional state positions.

• Legislation Targetting Cultural Practice

  • $21$ April $1933$: A law was enacted specifically forbidding the ritual slaughter of animals, a frontal attack on Jewish religious life.

• Key Figures in Persecution

  • Julius Streicher ($1885-1946$): The editor of the notoriously anti-Semitic newspaper Der Stürmer, who played a central role in organizing early discriminatory actions.

The Nuremberg Race Laws and Social Isolation ($1935$)

• The Legal Framework of September $1935$

  • Reich Citizenship Law: Stripped Jews of their German citizenship, reducing them to "subjects of the state."
  • Law for the Protection of Blood and German Honor: Prohibited marriages and extramarital relations between Jews and "Aryans."

• Racial Definitions and Classifications

  • Jew: Defined as anyone with $3$ or $4$ Jewish grandparents.
  • Jew by Practice/Association: Anyone with $2$ Jewish grandparents who was either married to a Jew or still actively practiced the Jewish faith.
  • $1^{st}$ Degree Mischlinge: Individuals with $2$ Jewish grandparents who did not belong to the Jewish religion and were not married to a Jew.
  • $2^{nd}$ Degree Mischlinge: Individuals with only $1$ Jewish grandparent.

• Geographic Exceptions

  • These specific legal standards and definitions did not necessarily apply uniformly in territories occupied by Germany during the war.

The Policy Impasse and Regime In-Fighting ($1936-1937$)

• The Debate over Economic Stability ($1936$)

  • Julius Streicher: Advocated for renewed and intensified attacks on Jewish commerce and businesses.
  • Hjalmar Schacht ($1877-1970$): The President of the Reichsbank ($1923-1930$) and Reich Minister of Economics ($1934-1937$). He complained to Hitler that radical anti-Semitic measures would hurt the German economy.
  • Outcome: Temporary moderation prevailed because of Schacht’s influence and the need to maintain a positive international image, particularly during the $1936$ Berlin Olympics.

• Competing Factional Interests in $1937$

  • Moderation Faction: Led by Hjalmar Schacht (Economics).
  • Radical Faction: Led by Julius Streicher, Joseph Goebbels, and the broader NSDAP rank-and-file.
  • Hermann Goering: Head of the Luftwaffe and the Office of the Four-Year Plan. He aimed to ‘Aryanize’ all Jewish property (the forced transfer of Jewish assets to non-Jews).
  • Heinrich Himmler ($1900-1945$): The Reichsfire SS ($1929-1945$). He viewed Jews both as a "police target" and as raw material to be used for the expansion of an SS-controlled economic empire.

Expropriation, Aryanization, and Emigration

• Loss of Property

  • Voluntary Aryanization: The early phase where Jews were pressured to sell businesses at a fraction of their value.
  • Compulsory Aryanization: The later, forced expropriation of all Jewish assets and goods.

• Emigration Strategies

  • Emigration was pursued both voluntarily by those fleeing and through compulsory measures taken by the state.
  • Haavara (Transfer) Agreement ($1933-1939$): An agreement between the Nazi government and Zionist organizations to facilitate the emigration of German Jews to Palestine by allowing them to recover some of their assets in the form of German-made goods.

• Statistical Overview of the Jewish Population

  • Total German Jews in $1933$: approximately $550,000$.
  • Voluntary departures ($1933-1938$): approximately $130,000$ Jews left Germany.
  • Post-Anschluss Austria: Within $6$ months of Germany annexing Austria, $50,000$ Jews were forced out.
  • Emigration in $1938-1939$: Perhaps another $120,000$ Jews left the "Greater Germany" area.

State-Sanctioned Violence and Kristallnacht

• Ongoing Terror

  • Rampaging Sturmabteilung (SA) mobs engaged in semi-regular, localized terror campaigns against German Jews.

• The Kristallnacht Pogrom ($9$ November $1938$)

  • A violent nation-wide pogrom that represented a major escalation in state-sponsored violence.
  • Approximately $200$ synagogues across Germany were burnt down or otherwise destroyed on the night of $9-10$ November $1938$.