SEM 415 - Staffing
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Recruitment and Selection
“Best practices”
NOT
Hunches, guesses, or unproven practices
Are
Ethical treatment of job applicants through recruitment and hiring process
Following accepted standards and principles of professional associations
Fair
Do not discriminate against protected groups
Supported by empirical evidence that has been accumulated through accepted scientific procedures
Adds value to organization, contribute to success
Talent Management - an organizations commitment to recruit, retain, and develop the most talented and superior employees
Human Resource Information System (HRIS) - Computer based systems that track employee data, the needs of HR, and the requirements and competencies needed for different positions, among other functions
Recruitment - the generation of an applicant pool for a position or job in order to provide the required number of candidates for a subsequent selection or promotion program
Meet management goals and objectives
Must also meet current legal requirements (human rights, employement equity, labour law, and other legislation)
Selection - The choice of job candidates from a previously generated applicant pool in a way that will meet management goals and objectives as well as current legal requirements
Hiring at entry level externally
Promotion or lateral transfer from within organization
Movemen to current employees into training and development
Why Recruitment and Selection Matter
Recruitment and selection identify best practices:
Valid, reliable, and legally defensible
Not derived from “gut feelings” but rather from empirical studies
Inform standards and principles of professional associations
Do not have to be perfect and are always evolving
They can improve the performance of individuals and organizations
HR Functions
Recruitment and selectio make up only one component of an HR system and must align with the organization’s vision, mission, and values, comply with legislative requirements and adapt to social economic forces
HR is embedded within the organization, which itself is embedded within the external environment
Talent Management
An Organization’s commitment to recruit, retain, and develop the most talented employees
Part of talent management involves developing an employee’s career across the organization and knowing when suitable internal positions become vacant
Human Resources Information Systems (HRIS)
Talent is often managed using HRIS
Computer based systems that track employee data, the needs of HR, and the requirements and competencies needed for different positions and jobs
Popular in large organizations
Bad hiring decision can lead to financial consequences
HR must be aligned with the organization’s strategy
Vision, Mission and Values
Influence strategic goals and objectives
Vision - organization’s future aspriations, describing a desirable future state that serves to guide the organization’s behavior
Mission: accurately and briefly explain why organization exists and hopes to achieve in future
Convey the core purpose of the organization, define the organization’s business, they are the guiding force that provides employees with a direction, purpose, and context for their activities
Values - principles or beliefs that guide organizations work
Vision, Mission, and Values statements
Vision and mission statements lead to a set of values, captured in the principles or beliefs that guide an organization’s work
Strategy - formulation of organiational objectives, competitive scopes, and action plans for gaining advantage
Strategic objectives
Develop strategic objectives
More focused than vision/mission statements
Help formulate organizational objectives, competitive scopes, and action plans (ie - strategy)
Guide the recruitment/selection process by homing in on the type of employee the company needs to hire, including their fir, capabilities, and KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes)
Analyze the External environment
HR Managers must keep informed of changing factors within and outside their organization that could impact their effectiveness in serving their organizaiton’s strategic objectives, including:
Employment law and government regulations
Markets (domestic and global) ex - tariffs
Economic climate
Advances in technology
Workforce demographics
Legislative environment
The Canadian constitution is the “supreme law” guiding treatment of workers
Protected groups
Women
Visible minorities
Persons with disabilities
Aboriginal Peoples
Diversity improves organizational performance
Recruitment and selection must take place within context of applicable laws and regulations
Human and legal rights of job applicants and employees
Women, visible minorities, immigrants, and Aboriginal people
Can’t disciminate egainst potential or existing employees with respect to non job related characteristics
Global competition
More than half of hwat is produced is exported
Global competition is high, and it increases when new players enter the market
Global competition increase organizational costs
It makes HR key in finding new ways to be efficient in hiring and retaining employees
Economic climate
The economy has a major impact on staffing
Economic booms = skilled labour shortages
HR places more emphasis on recruitment
Companies may become less selective
HR may rely on outsourcing and temporary workers
Economic slowdowns or recessions = cutbacks on jobs, pay, benefits, hiring freezes
Technology
Employers expect new hires to be computer literate and to be familiar with basic computer software
Employers are using technology to a greater extent than ever before to recruit and select the best employees, including the use of the internet and AI
The greater use of technology brings with it a greater concern for privacy and data security
Chanign work force demographics
The Canadian working population is getting older, with fewer younger workers available to join the workforce
Mandatory retirement age legislation has been abolished in most Canadian provinces and territories
The work force will continue to get older
The canadian work force is becoming increasingly diverse and more highly educated than work forces of the past
Older workforce, fewer younger workers available
Type of Organization
Public sector tends to have more formalized recruitment and selection systems
Private sector procedures may vary by the type and size of the business or industry
Organizational Restructuring
Technology is reducing the need for labour
Increasing number of baby-boomers leaving the workforce
Redifining jobs
Information era means workers are required to apply a wider range of skills to an ever changing series of tasks
Unions
Unionized work environments
HR practitioners in a unionized environment must know the requirements of any applicable collective agreement with respect to recruitment and selection procedures
Identify the Competitive Edge
Identify target applicants via an environment scan and tailor recruitment and selection efforts towards them
Determine the Competitive Position
Identify target applicants via an environment scan and tailor recruitment and selection efforts toward them
Who are the employees you want? What KSAOs should they have to do the job effectively? How will you test for these KSAOs?
The answers to these questions will formulate your hiring practices compared with those of your competitors
Implement the strategy
Strategies can be implemented via recruitment and selection action plans
These are teh processes by which strategies are turned into action, shaped by best practices
Develop recruitment strategy
Develop applicant pool
Screen applicant pool
Review and select job recipients
Evaluate the recruiting and selection effort
Elements of a Recruitment and Selection Action Plan
Develop recruitment strategy
Identify number of position to be filled
Establish selection committee
Review organizationls goals and objectives based on strategic HR plan
Establish budget for recruitment process
Establish timelines for recruitment and selection activities
develop/review job descriptions for positions
Develop selection criteria
Develop profil of “ideal” applicant
Develop job advertisements/recruiting materials
Develop applicant pool
Review state of labour market
Considere employment equity issues
Determine whether recruitment will be internal or external
In unionized workplace, identify any collective agreements clauses that apply
Identify target applicant pool
Identify recruitment methods to be used
Place ad/recruiting materials in agreed upon media
Screen the applicant pool
Determine whether applicant pool is large enough, if not renew recruitment efforts
Screen job candidates application forms and resumes
Conduct short screening interviews
Select “long list” of candidates for further review
Review and selection of job applicants
Selection committee develops shortlist of candidates
Arranges visits of shortlisted candidates to company
Conduct valid and reliable employment tests
Conduct behavioral based selection interview
Identify leading candidate(s) for position
Complete reference and background checks on leading candidates
Making hiring recommendations
Contingent on offer of employment, arrange for any required medical or physical examinations
Evaluate the recruiting and selection effort
Review the recruiting and selection process: what went right? What went wrong?
Review the outcome of the recruiting process
Review the outcome of the selection process
Review the performance of people who were hired
Recruitment, Selection, and the HR Profession
Many HRM practitioners and consultants hold membership in one or more professional associations and may be certified or registered with an association or professional licensing body in their area of specialization
Increasing expectation that HR professionals working within Canada will hold the Chartered Professional in Human Resources (CPHR) designation
Ethical Issues and Professional Standards
Ethics - determination of right and wrong; the standards of appropriate conduct or bheavior fo rmemebrs of a profession; what those members may or may not do
Professional standards: provide guidance on how HR professionals should behave in certain situations including use of employment tests
Context of recruitment and selection, professional standards offer, advice on employment tests, standards that different tests must meet, qualifications of using employment tests
Ethical Standards in HRM
Regualte and guide the behavior of HR professionals in terms of professional ethics (eg- how to ethically deliver an employment test)
Ethical dilemmas are common in recruitment and selection
Human Resources and the internet
The growth of the internet and social media has resulted in many online resources for HR professionals
Canadian Council of Human Resource Associations (CCHRA) applies to HR practitioners, 4 major principles:
P1 - Members have a duty to discharge all of their professional responsibilities honourable, competently, and with integrity
P2 - Member have a duty to protect and promote the Profession and ot cooperate with the Association
P3 - Members have a duty to act in the best interest of their clients and employers
P4 - Members must at all times act in a manner that advances the principles of health and safety, human rights, equity, dignity, and overall well being in the workplace
Class Notes:
Chapter 2: Reliability and Validity
KSAOs - Knowledge, skills, Abilities, or other attributes and competencies necessary for a new incumbent to do well on the job, also referred to as job, employment, or worker specifications
Competentices - groups of related bheaviors or attributes that are needed for successful job performance in an organization
Selection procedures that are ethical and follow professional standards are defensibile, should they be challenged in court or in employment tribunal
Constructs - ideas or concepts constructured or invoked to expalin relationships between observations
Variables - how someone or something varies on the construct of interest
Selection must be built on sound scietific foundation
System must be based on solid empirical support
HR person must be able to demonstrate reliability and validity of selection system
Any selection system must operate within a legal context
Valid vs Reliable Assessments
Reliabile = constant
Valid = true or false
Hiring practies - Toronto Police Service
Personnel selection
Importance of valid and reliable recruitment and selection testing
Hiring decisions should meet legal requirements and should not be based upon gut feelings or intuition
Science vs Practice in Selection Table
Reliability - the degree to which observed scores are free from random measurement errors. Reliability is an indivdation of the stability or dependability of a set of measurements over repeated applicatoisn of the measurement procedure
Systematic and Random Error
Most measures taken of job candidates to help inform selection decisions contain some degree of error in measurement
The score obtained on any on administration (ie the observed score) is comprised of the persons “true” score on the attribute assessed and some aount of random “measurement error”
It means over and over and over again you should get around the same answer
True score - the average score that an individual would earn on an infinite numbenr of administrations o the same test or parallel versions of the same test
Error score - the hypothetical difference between an observed score and true score
Measurement error - the hypothetical difference between an observed score and a true score; comprises of both random error and systematic error
Standard error of measurement
A statistical index that summarizes information related to measurement error and reflects how an individuals score would vary on average, over repeated observations that were made under indentifcal conditions
Factors that may affect reliability
Temporary individual characteristics
Lack of standardization
Chance
Methods of estimating reliability - Consistent variability across the measurements represents true score varabilitity while inconsistency across the measurements reflects random error
Parallel (alternate) forms - multiple panel members
Ex- instructors given different forms of test to different class sections
Test and retest
The same test and measurement procedure are used to assess the same attribute for the same group of people on two different occasions
Internal consistency
Rather than select any one pair of items, the correlations are calculated between all possible pairs of items and then averaged
inter-rater reliability
For example - how likely is it that two managers providing independent performance ratings for each of several employees would assign the same ratings?
Choosing an index of reliability
It remains within the professional judgement of the HR specialist to choose an appropriate index of reliability and to determine the level of reliability that is acceptable for use of specific measure
Validity - the degree to which accumulated evidence and theory support specific interpretations of test scores in the context of the test’s proposed use
Refers to the legitimacy or correctness of the inferences that are drawn from a set of measurements or other specified procedures
Validation strategies
Construct and content validity are validation strategies that provide evidence based on test content
Criterion related validity provides evidence based on relationships to other variables
Content Validity - whether the items on a test capture the content or subject matter they are intended to measure; assessed through the judgements of experts in the subject area
Construct validity - degree to which a test or procedure assesses an underlying theoretical construct it is supposed to measure, assessed through multiple sources of evidence showing that it measures what is purports to measure and not other constructs. For example - an IQ test must measure intelligence, not personality
Criterion-related validity - the relationship between a predictor (test score) and an outcome measure, assessed by obtaining the correlation between the predictor and outcome scores
Face validity - the degree to which the test takers (not subject matter experts) view the content of a test or test items as relevant to the context in which the test is being administered
Predictive validity - strategies in which evidence is obtained about a correlation between predictor scores that are obtained before an applicant is hired and criterion scores taht are obtained at a later time, usually after an applicant is employed
Evidence is obtained about a correlation between prehire predictor scores (ex- cognitive ability) and post hire criterion scores (ie - performance)
Concurrent validation - strategies in which evidence is obtained about a correlation between predictor and criteria scores from information that is collected at approximately the same time from a specific group of workers
Validity evidence is obtained about a correlation between predictor and criterion scores from data collected on both at approximately the same time and from a specific group of workers
Validity generalization - the application of validity evidence, obtained through meta-analysis of data obtained from many situations, to other situations that are similar to those on which the meta-analysis is based
Factors affecting validity coefficients
Range restrictions
When measurements are made on a subgroup that is more homogenous than the larger group from which it is selected, validity coefficients obtained on the subgroup are likely to be smaller than those obtained on the larger group
This reduction in the size of the validity coefficient due to the selection process is called range restriction
Measurement error - the reliability of a measure places an upper limit on validity
Sampling error
Estimates of the validity within a population may vary considerably between samples
Estimates from small samples are likely to be variable
Correcting for errors
Ex- Hr manager during interviews measures heights of all applicants and says tall applicants are more competent. Is this valid? No
Content validity - whether the items on a test appear to match the content or subject matter they are intended to assess, assessed through the judgements of experts in the subject area
Constructs and Varaibles
Construct - refers to ideas or concepts constructed or invoked to explain relationships between observations
Ex- the construct “extraversion” has been invoked to explain the relationship between “social forthrightness” and sales
Variable - refers to how someone or something varies on the construct of interest
Ex- variable “IQ” is used to represent variability in intelligence
Selection Model
The aim of selection is to identify candidates who possess attributes required for effectiveness on the job
pre - hire measures of job relevant KSAOs are used to predict job performance (ie - establishing predictive validity)
If shown to be predictive, the employer can then be confident that using these measures to inform selection decisions provides value and a strong basis for defending them if challenged in the courts, by HR tribunals, or by grievance boards
Bias - systematic errors in measurement or inferences made from those measurements, that are related to different identifiable group membership characteritistcs such as age, ssex, or race
Predictive bias - is present when the predicted average performance score of a subgroup is underpredicted relative to members of the relative groups
Measurement bias occurs in a set of measurements when items on a test may elicit a variety of responses other than what it was intended, or some items on a test may have different meanings for members of different subgroups
Fairness - the principle that every test taker should be assessed in an equitable manner
Value judgements people make about the decisions or outcomes that are based on measurements
An unbiased measure may still be viewed as unfair
Fairness as equitable treatment in the testing process - should experience the same or comparable procedures in the testing itself, in how the tests are scored and in how tests scores used
Fairness as lack of bias - does not produce any systematic effects that are related to different identifiable group membership characteritistcs such as age, sex, or race
Fiarness in selection and prediction - compromise between perspective that equates fairness with lack of bias and the perspective that focuses on testing outcomes.
Chapter 3: Legal Issues
Legal sources that Affect recruitment and Selection
Four legal sources affect Canadian employment practices in recruitment and selection
Constitutional law
Human rights law
Employment equity legislation
Labour law, employment standards, and privacy legislation
Discrimination - in employment, any refusal to employ or to continue to employ any person or to adversely affect any current employee, on the basis of that individuals membership in a protected group. All Canadian jurisdictiosn prohibit discrimination at least on the basis of race or colour, religion or creed, age, sex, marital status, and physical or mental disability
Prohibited grounds of discrimination may vary among jurisdictions
Constitutional law
15(1) - every person befor the law has right to equal protection and benefit of law without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental and physical disability
Supreme law of Canada
Has a pervasive impact on employment practices and all spheres of Canadian society
Does not directly affect everyday recruitment and selection activities, only affects recruitment and selection activities when challenged at a high level
Human Rights law
Every province and terriroty as well as federal government has established a human rights act or code that prohibits discimination in employment and in provision of goods and services
Human rights legislation in all jurisdictions is enforced through human rights commissions or tribunals that have the legislated power to undertake actiosn that may be necessary to eliminate discrimination
All Canadian juridcations prohibit discrimination on the grounds of disability, sex, race, colour, ethnic origin, age, creed or religion, marital status, and sexual orientation
Canadian human rights act - applies to federal government departments, crown corporation, and agencies
Banks, airlines, railways, CBC, Canada post
Can’t discrminate on grounds of
Race
National or ethnic origin
Colour
Religion
Age
Sex (pregnancy and childbirth)
Marital status
Family status
Mental or physical disability (previous or present drug or alcohol dependence)
Pardoned conviction
Sexual orintation
Employment Equity - the eliniation of discriminatory practices that prevent the entry or retention of members from designated groups in the workplace, and the elimination of unequal treatment in the workplace related to membership in a designated group
Intent of employment equity act is to address past systematic discrimination in employment systems that have disadvantaged members of designated groups
Designated groups: women, aboriginal peoples, persons with disabilities, visible minorities
Identify and eliminating employment practices that act as barriers to employment of persons in designated groups
Instituting positive policies and practices and making reasonable accomondation to increase representation from designated groups among various positions in the organization to reflect the designated group’s representation in either the work force or in those segments of work force (qualification, eligibility, or geography) from which the employer reasonably expects to hire or promote employee
Designated groups - women, aboriginals, members of visible minority, and persons with disabilities
Protected groups - those who have attributes that are defined as “prohibted grounds” for discrimination under the human rights act that applies to the employing organization
Labour Law
These laws grant cerntain employment rights to both employers and employees, but also impose a wide range of employment responsibilities and obligations
Federal and provincial labour laws stipulate the rights of employees to organize trade unions and to bargain collective agreements with employers
Employment Standard laws
Federal and provincial or territorial employment standard laws provide rules for such minimums as age of employment, standard hours of work, minimum wages, statutory holidays, vacations, work leaves, and termination of employment
Employment standards
Requires that individuals give consent for the collection, use, and disclosure of their personal information and that the collection, use, and disclosure is reasonable in the circumstances
The Canadian Privacy Act governs the collection, use, and disclosure of any personal information by the federal government
Privacy Legislation
Personal information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA)
Specifies how private enterprises under federal jurisdiction collect, use, disclose, store, and destroy personal information in the course of commercial activities across Canada
Direct discrimination - where an employer adopts a practice or rule that on its face discriminates on a prohibited ground
Indirect discrimination/Adverse effect discrimination - when employer in good faith, adopts policy or practice for sound economic or business reasons, but when applied to all employees it has an unintended negative impact on members of a protected group
Adverse impact - occurs when the selection rate for a protected groups is lower than that for the relevant comparison group.
Workplace Discriminiation
Section 15(2) into the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which states that programs designed to ameliorate discrimination by favouring disadvantaged groups are not themselves, discriminatory
Bona fida occupational requirement (BFOR) - occupational requirement person must possess to perform the essential components of a job in safe, efficient, and reliable manner. To defend employment practice or policy on grounds that policy or practice may be perceived as discriminatory, the employer must show that the practice or policy was adopted in an honest and good faith belief that it was reasonably necessary to ensure that the efficient and economical performance of the job without endangering employees or the general public.
BFOR Tes, Meiorin Testt - balance of probabilities:
Employer adopted the standard for a purpose rationally connected to the performance of the job
Employer adopted the particular standard in an honest and good faith belief that it was necessary to the fulfillment of that legitimate work related purpose
The standard is reasonably necessary to the accomplishment of that legitimate work related purpose. To show that the standard is reasonably necessary, it must be demonstrated that it is impossible to accommodate individual employees sharing the characteristics of the claimant without imposing undue hardship upon the employer
Meiorin Decision
Direct and Adverse Effect Discrimination
The Meiorin court decision resulted in legislation allowing employers to defned a discriminatory policy or practice as a BFOR only if there is a good reason for it based on the employer’s need to “engage and retain efficient employees”
Accommodation - duty of an employer to put in place modifications to discriminatory employment practices or procedures to meet the needs of members of a protected group being affected by the employment practice or procedure. As part of BFOR defence, employer must demonstrate that such accommodation is impossible to achieve without incurring undue hardship in terms of the organization’s expense or operations
Reasonable Accomodation
The concept of reasonable accomodation is incorporated into the concept of a BFOR
Where discrimination has occurred, the employer is under a duty to accommodate the complainant short of undue hardship
The Meiorin test is the standard under which all workplace practices, including selection testing, constitute BFORs
Court, tribunals, and arbitrators use this test in determining whether a workplace practice can be considered to be a BFOR when considering whether those practices constitute either adverse or direct discrimination against individuals or groups
Individual Accomodation
Recent rulings make it necessary for employers to accommodate candidates with disabilities, even if the person is the only one with that disability applying for the job
Employers can no longer apply for BFOR as a general policy if it disproportionately excludes members of protected groups, espeically those with disabilities
To establish a BFOR, an employer must successfully argue that accommodating the needs of the adversely affected person would produce undue hardship for the organization
Resonsable Alternative
If a certain selection test is used and shows adverse impact, Human rights tribunals usually ask employers to prove there wasn’t another test that could have been reasonably used
If there is a test, why was it not employed?
Could standards reflective of group or individual differences have been established?
Is there a way to do the job that is less discriminatory while still accomplishing the employer’s legitimate purpose?
Was there undue burden on applicants?
Undue hardship - limit beyond which employers and service providers are not expected to accommodate a member of a protected group. Undue hardship usually occurs when an employer cannot bear the costs of the accommodation
The limit beyond which employers and service providers are not expected to accommodate a member of a protected group
Undue hardship usually occurs when an employer cannot bear the costs of accommodation, but this is a high standard to reach
The financial cost to the employer as a result of making the accommodation
Disruption of an existing collective agreement
Impact of lowered morale on other employees
Flexibility of work force and facilities
The size of the employers operations
The magnitude of risk for workers and the general public when safety is compromised
Sufficient risk - as part of BFOR defence, employer may argue that an occupational requirement that discriminates against a protected group is reasonably necessary to ensure that work will be performed successfully and in a manner that will not pose harm or danger to employees or the public
Practical Guidelines
The scope of practices that must be considered is more manageable if the success or failure of recruitment is traced back to two main causes
The effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of the organization in contacting and communicating with target group members
The positive or negative perception that target group members hold about the organization
Outreach recruiting
A recruitment practice whereby the employing organization makes a determine and persistent effort to make potential job applicants, including designated group members, aware of available position within the employing organization
Ex- multinational software company SAP has an autism at work program that involves a partnership between SAP and autism experts directed at finding suitable candidates with autism for existing jobs
Legal Requirements
Legal requirements
Practioners must ensure the proper implementation of the system and monitor it over time for any changes
There are questions that practitioners can ask to determine if the recruitment and selection procedures they are using will meet with legal acceptance
Chapter 4: Job Analysis and Competency Models
Work analysis - any systematic gathering, documenting, and analyzing of information about the content of work performed by people in organizations; the worker attribute related to work performance, or the context, both psychological and physical in which work is performed
Job analysis - process of collecting information about jobs, systematic process for gathering, documenting, and analyzing data about the work required for a job, “by any method for any purpose”
Does not refer to a single methodology but rather range of techniques
Formal, structured process carried out under set of guidelines established in advance
Breaks down a job into constituent parts, rather than looking at job as whole
Include description of context and principal duties of the job, including job responsibilities and working conditions, and information abou the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes (KSAOs) required in performance
Legally acceptable way of determining job-relatedness
A good job analysis ensures accurate information on skill, effort, responsibility, and working conditions reducing the likelihood of impediments to equitable employment access for all Canadians
Job analysis provides objective evidence of the skills and abilities required for effective performance in the job
Job description - written description of what job occupants are required to do; how they are supposed to do it, and the rationatle for any required job procedures
Job specification - the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes or competencies that are needed by a job incumbent to perform well on the job
Job Evaluation
The job specifications (KSAOs) may include the compensable factors that are used in performing a job evaluation, such as analytical abilities, physical exertion, accountability for budgets
Job evaluation is a specific application of job analysis to determine a job’s value to the organization in order to establish the pay range for the job
Job - collection of positions that are similar in their significant duties
Group of tasks, can be held by one or more people
Ex- secretary, architect, electrician
Position - a collection of duties assigned to individuals in an organization at a given time
Pe3rformed by one person in organization at a given time, each person in organization assigned a position
Ex- secretary to HR director, secretary to VP finance
Job family - a set of different, but related jobs that rely on the same set of KSAOs
Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) - people who are most knowledgeable about a job and how it is currently performed, generally job incumbents and their supervisors
Job Analysis and Employment laws
Although there are no laws that specifically require a job analysis prior to implementing recruitment and selection programs, job analysis is a legally acceptable way of determining job-relatedness
Conducting a job analysis is the first line of defence in protecting the organization if its selection procedures are challenged in court
Job Analysis Methods
The goal of job analysis should always be the description of observable work behaviors and analysis of their products
The results should describe the work behavior independent of the personal characteristics of employees who perform the job
Job analysis must be verifiable and replicable
Job Analysis - Validation Approaches
Five validation approaches that can be applied to job analysis information that have been identified:
Is the job language appropriate (linguistic validation)
Does the information describe the worker’s experience (experiential validation)
Does the information generalize across job, function, and organizational contexts (ecological)
Is the information useful to users and others in the organization (socio-organizaional) and
Does the information relate to other variables, processes, and dynamics (hypothetico-critical)
Job Analysis steps
Gathering job related information
Collect available information describing the target job
National occupation classification system, NOC
O*NET Content model presents conceptual foundation of the O*NET model
Framework that identifies the most important types of information about work
Work oriented job analysis - techniques that emphazie work outcomes and descriptions of the various tasks performed to accomplish those outcomes
job analysis techniques that emphasize general aspects of jobs, describing perceptual, interpersonal, sensory, cognitive, and physical activities
Methods
Structured job analysis interviews - data collection method that involves questioning individuals or small groups of employees and supervisors using the same set of questions about the job
Interobserver reliability increases when interviews are structured because the individual biases of different interviewers are minimized
Interviews should be well planned and carefully conducted
Job analyst should record the incumbents or supervisors responses by taking notes or by taping the interviews
The interview should elicit information about job tasks, physical activities involved in the job, and environmental conditions (physical and social) under which the work occurs
Direct observation - a work oriented method, the job analyst unobtrusively documents what employees do as they carry out their job activities
Task statement - a discrete sentence containing one action verb that concisely describes a single observable activity performed by a job incumbent
A verb describing the action being performed
An object of the verb that describes whom/what the action is being done
A description of tools, equipment, work aids, and processes required for the successful completion of the task
An unexpected output describing the result of the action
Rating task statements and KSAOs
Used to describe the job in terms of knowledge, skill, ability, and other attributes
Structured job analysis questionnaires and inventories
Requires workers and other SMEs to respond to written questions about their jbos
Respondents are asked to make judgements about activities, tasks, tools, and equipment and working conditions involved in the job
Task inventories - work oriented surveys that break down jobs into their component tasks
Permits workers to define their jobs in relation to a subset of tasks qppearing in the inventory
According to Uniform guidelines, job analysis should assess:
Duties performed
Level of difficulty of job duties
Job context
Criticality of duties to the job
Functional job analysis
The focus group with SMEs to generate the job information
Several rating processes to describe this information
Critical incident tecnhnique - examples of effective and ineffective work behaviors that are related to superior or inferior performance
Generates behaviorally focused description of work activities
Gathers examples of critical job incidents (positive and negative) from job experts including the circumstances that led ot the incident, the employee behaviors during the incident, and the outcome of those behaviors
Effective and ineffective work behaviors that are related to superior and inferior performance
Also generates behaviorally focused descriptions of work activities
Developed as a training needs assessment and performance appraisal tool
SMEs generate incidents (observable activites that help make inferences and predictions about person performing job) before, during, and after
Worker-oriented job analysis - Techniques that emphasize general aspects of jobs, describing perceptual, interpersonal, sensory, cognitive, and physical activities
Position analysis questionnaire - structured job analysis questionnaire that focuses on the general behaviors that make up a job
Structured job analysis questionnaire that focuses on the general behaviors that make up a job
Assumes that all jobs can be described in terms of six dimensions: information, input, mental processes, work output, relationships, job context, and other job characteristics
Can be used for any job but is more suitable for “blue collar” jobs
Worker traits inventories - methods used to infer employee specifications from job analysis data
Do not provide information on the job as a whole or any tasks associated with it, but only certain requirements needed to carry out the job
Designed to identify the traits or KSAOs that predict job success
Personality Oriented Job Analysis (POJA)
Provides for the identification of specific personality traits for any job
SMEs to rate the positive or negative contribution of defined personality traits with job performance
Fleishman Job Analysis Survey (F-JAS)
Identifies which and to what degree empirically derived ability constructs (eg - oral comprehension, dependability) are critical to performn a specific job effectively
Job Analysis for Physical and Physiological Requirements
Physically demanding jobs (eg- policing, firefighting) require additional job information to be collected reflecting their physical aspects
Physical demands analysis identifies the physical requirements of job tasks and the physiological strain placed on the worker when completing those tasks
Other methods
Best Practice Legal defensibility and Guidelines
Competencies - groups of related behaviors or attributes that are needed for successful job performance in an organization
Measurable attributes ir behaviors that distinguish outstanding performances from others in a defined job context
Rapidly changing jobs and organizations that demand flexibility of their workers has led some HR practitioners to search for alternatives to traditional job analysis techniques, such as competency based job analysis
Competency models - collection of competencies that are relevant to performance in a particular job, job family, or functional area
Competency framework/Architecture - broad framework for integrating, organizing, and aligning various competency models that are based on an organizations strategy and vision
When competencies are developed in consideration with company strategies, they can establish the critical motives, traits, selfconcept, knowledge, and skills that are needed for company success
Competency descriptions form the basis for new recruitment, selection, training, performance management, and compensation
They can start to change behaviors in the company towards aspects that reflect the strategy
Compotency Framework
Proponents of job analysis and competency modelling rated the traditional job analysis methods as more rigorous, particularly in pvodiign more reliable information
Each method ahs its strengths and weaknesses
They should be viewed as being complementary to one another, with each providing unique information about jobs
Competency Categories
Core competencies - characteristics that every member of an organization, regardless of position, function, job, or level of responsibility within organization is expected to possess
Functional competencies - characteristics shared by different positions within an organization (ie - group of related or similar jobs). Only those members of an organization in these positions are expected to possess these competencies
Job specific competencies - characteristics that apply only to specific positions within the organization. Only those people in the position are expected to possess these competencies
Competency Dictionaries
A listing of all the competencies required by an organization to achieve its mandate, along with the proficiency level required to perform successfully in different functional groups or positions
Proficiency level
The level at which comptency must be performed to ensure success in one or more functional groups of jobs
Competency profile
A set of proficiency ratings related to a function, job, or employee
Legal Defensibility of Competency models
Courts and tribunals have ruled that HR systems must be supported by empirical evidence that there is a link between selection measures and the essential duties of a job
Assessing Empolyee Competencies
An organization must adopt an assessment strategy for assessing employee proficiency levels for jobs, organizational culture, and company values
How to Develop a Job Competency Model
Starts with identifying the SMEs who are knowledgeable about the job and establishing the research method to gather this informatino
The goal is to identify and describe the competencies that are essential for superior performance in the job
Conducting a focus group with SMEs is one approach to developing a job competency model
Validating Competency-Based Selection Systems
The reliability and validity of competency models used in selection must be established
Ratings of frequency and criticality by supervisor and incumbents can be built into a competency model followed by validation against supervisor measures of performance and assessment of inter-rater reliability
Competency Modelling vs Job Analysis
Job analysis and competency modelling provide complementary information in support of HR activities
Job analysis is best positioned to describe and measure jobs, whereas competency modelling is best positioned to identify behaviors related to superior performance
Leadership Competency Models
Essential leadership competencies:
Integrity and ethics
Strategic thinking
Engagement
Innovation
Accountability
Building the organizational team
Effective communication
Results focus
Chapter 5: Job Performance
Job performance - behaviors (the observable things people do ) that is relevant to accomplishing the goals of an organization
Criteria - measures of job performance that attempt to capture individual differences among employees with respect to job related behaviors
Task performance - duties related to the direct production of goods and services and to the direct contribution to the efficient functioning of the organization that form part of a job. These duties are part of the workers formal job description
Contextual performance - the activities or behaviors that are not part of a workers formal job description but that remain important for organizational effectiveness
Adaptive performance - a workers behavioral reactions to changes in a work systems or work role
Handling emergencies or crisis situations
Handling work stress
Solving problems creatively
Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situation
Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures
Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability
Demonstrating cultural adaptability
Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability
Counterproductive work behaviors - voluntary behaviors that violate significant organizational norms and in so doing threaten the well being of an organization, its members, or both
Lying, theft, property, damage, violence, engaging in risky behaviors, harassment of coworkers, and sabotage, among others
Most negative is withdrawal from the job
Tardiness
Absence
Presenteeism - measure of lost productivity occurs when employees show up for work but not fully engaged in jobs because personal health and life issues
Workplace deviance
Production deviance
Psychlogical withdrawal
Employee theft
Workplace aggression and violence
Bullying
Job performance Domain - the set of job performance dimensions (ie behaviors) that is relevant to the goals of the organization, or the unit, in which a person works
Performance dimensions - sets of related behaviors that are derived from an organizations goals and linked to successful job performance
Although it is common to organize work related behaviors into dimensions, another way job behaviors may be grouped is around job specific competencies (eg - interpersonal skills)
Multidimensional model of job performance
Job specific task proficiency - degree to which an individual can perform technical tasks that make uip content of job
Non job specific task proficiency - degree to which individuals can perform tasks or behaviors that are not specific to any one job
Written and oral communication profeiciency
Demonstrating effots
Maintaining personal dignity - negative behaviors avoided
Facilitating peer and team performance - degree to which an individual supports coworkers, helps them with job problems, keeps them working as team to achieve goals
supervision/leadership - behaviors directed at influencing performance of subordinates through interpersonal means
management/adminstration - includes all other performance behaviors involved in management that are distinct from supervisors
Adaptive Work Performance
Research has led to defining adaptive performance in terms of eight dimensions
Handling emergencies or crisis situations
Handling work stress
Solving problems creatively
Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable work situations
Learning work tasks, technologies, and procedures
Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability
Demonstrating cultural adaptability
Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability
Measuring performance
The usefulness of selection measures is assessed by how well they predict performance
Performance measurement defines what is meant by performance
Choose a measure or set of measures that best captures the essence of that complex job-related performance
Performance measurement plays an important role in developing strategies for effective recruitment and selection
Typical and Maximum Performance
Typical performance
Exhibited when individuals are working and not being observed
Predicted by personality measures
Maximum performance
Occurs when individuals are aware they are being observed and tested and/or when they have been told ot do their best
Predicted by cognitive ability measures
Multiple, Global, or Composite Criteria
Dynamic vs Stable criteria
Early job performance may be limited only by ability and experience since new employees are motivated to do well, while later job performance may be influenced more by motivation
Performance is dynamic
Studies designed to examine the relationship between a given selection method and job performance should collect performance information from as many employees as possible and sample from employees with differing levels of experience and job tenure
Criterion contamination - the degree to which the criterion measure is influenced by or measures, behaviors or competencies that are not part of job performance
Practicability - degree to which criterion measures is available, plausible, and acceptable to organizational decision makers
Objective Performance measures - production, sales, and personnel data used in assessing individual job performance
Subjective performance measures - ratings or rankings made by supervisors, peers or others that are used in assessing individual job performance
Two classes of subjective measures:
Relative rating system/Comparative rating systems - subjective measurement system that compares the overall performance of one employee to that of others to establish a rank order of employee performance
Rank order: the rater arranges the employees in order of their perceived overall performance level
Paired Comparisons: the rater compares the overall performance of each worker with that of every other worker who must be evaluated
Forced distribution: system sets up a limited number of categories that are tied to performance standards
Relative Percentile method - overcomes one of the major shortcomings of other comparative rating systems by allow raters to compare individuals on job performance dimensions that have been derived through job analytic procedures
Absolute rating systems - compare performance of one workers with an absolute standard of performance, can be used to assess performance on one dimension or to provide an overall assessment
Provide either an overall evaluation of performance or evaluation of each of several specific job dimensions
Ex-
Behaviourally Anchored rating scales (BARS)
Use the critically incident technique to derive job behaviors at varying levels of effectiveness that are used to anchor the values placed along a rating scale
Behavior observation scales (BOS)
A Behaviorally based rating scale requiring the performance rater to rate the frequency with which a number of observable job behaviros are exhibited by the employee
Management by objectives
Performance measurement system that emphasized completion of goals that are defined in terms of objective criteria
Results based system that emphasizes completion of goals
Employees meet with managers at end of review period to discuss met/unmet goals
Balanced scorecard
An approach that links higher-level strategic goals to individual performance
Measures outputs and outcomes
Incorporates performance feedback around internal business process outputs and the outcomes of business strategies
Although supervisors are the most frequent providers of subjective performance appraisal assessments, other sources of performance ratings are commonly used
For example: Self ratings, peer (co worker) ratings
360 Degree Feedback systems
Ratings are collected from multiple sources and consolidated by the supervisor for the purpose of providing employee feedback
Rater Training
With subjective performance assessments, it is vital that raters receive rater training
Frame of reference (FOR) training helps calibrate raters so they agree on the level of effectiveness for individual employee behaviors
Although rater training has been shown to lead significant improvements in rating quality, even the best training approaches will never be able to achieve the equivalent of rating perfection
Effective performance measures
In a personnel selection context, we want to compile evidence that the performance scores truly reflect relative standings of individual employees along the performance continuum
We hope to show relationships between scores on selection tests and job performance, such that those who score relatively higher (or lower) on a given test will be predictive of relatively higher (or lower) job performance
Validty as effectiveness
Rating error such as halo/horn, leniency/severity, and range restrictions are the most frequently examined rating errors
Other rating errors include conceptual similarity error and central tendency error
Less of these rating errors implies improved psychometric effectiveness
Conceptual Similarity Error: a tendency for raters to rate conceptually similar dimensions similarly for each ratee
Central tendency error: a rater preference to provide primarily average ratings across ratees
Overall distance accuracy: the average discrepancy between an individual ratings and a set of expert ratings that serves as the standard for comparison
Criterion relevance - degree to which the criterion measure captures bheaviors or competencies that constitute job performance
Criterion deficiency - those job performance behaviors or competencies that are not measured by the criterion
Performance Assessment
Can also think about performance measurement effectiveness in terms of perceptions, reactions, and attitudes of the key stakeholders involved in the process of performance assessment (ie - the raters and ratees)
Ex- are the stakeholders
Satisfied with the performance assessments?
Do they perceive the assessments to be both fair and accurate?
Do they perceive the assessments to be useful or practical?
Human rights and performance appraisal
The defensibility of selection systems and performance measures rests on the ability to demonstrate that they are job related
Increased critical examination of performance measurement practices by Canadian human rights commissions and courts will mean strict adherence to accepted professional standards of criterion development
Measuring performance in the 21st century
Employee Performance Monitoring
The earliest sign that technology would infiltrate performance measurement was through the introduction of Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM)
Ex- Audiotaping conversations, videotaping employee activities, and computer tracking
Artificial Intelligence
AI has many potential business applications but for our purposes here the focus is on performance measurement
Ex- through Ai and machine learning it is possible to analyze countless employee demographics, experience, and other individual difference factors to make analytical predictions about prescribed performance targets (eg- sales or production quotas)