C9 PSYCHE

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

  • Definition: Lifespan development studies the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes that occur throughout life.

    • Three domains:

    1. Physical development

    2. Cognitive development

    3. Psychosocial development

    • Stimulates thought on what constitutes development throughout a person's lifespan.

NORMATIVE APPROACH

  • Definition: The normative approach examines what is considered "normal" development in children and the general population.

    • Focuses on establishing developmental norms, such as the average ages when children reach certain developmental milestones.

    • Examples of milestones:

    • Biological milestones: such as starting puberty, which are universal across cultures.

    • Social milestones: such as starting school, which vary across cultural contexts.

CONTINUOUS VS DISCONTINUOUS DEVELOPMENT

  • Continuous Development:

    • Refers to development as a cumulative process, where skills improve gradually.

    • Example: Growing taller by inches each year.

  • Discontinuous Development:

    • Suggests that development occurs in distinct stages that are specific to certain times or ages.

ONE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY?

  • Stage Theories: Propose a universal process of development where everyone goes through the same set of stages.

    • Example: Research indicates that children globally reach language milestones in a similar sequence.

  • Cultural Differences: Acknowledge that child care practices can vary, potentially accelerating or inhibiting achievement of milestones.

    • Example: Children everywhere love to play, but specific play styles may differ across cultures (e.g., Florida versus South Africa).

NATURE VS NURTURE

  • Nature: Relates to biology and genetics.

  • Nurture: Encompasses environment and culture.

  • The Nature vs Nurture Debate:

    • Investigates how personality traits and behaviors are influenced by genetics and environmental factors.

    • Key questions:

    • Why do some siblings differ so greatly in personality?

    • Are adopted children more like their biological or adoptive parents?

    • Is intelligence inherited, learned, or a mix of both?

    • Often examined through twin and adoption studies, revealing interactions between genetic and environmental influences.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

  • Key developmental theories include:

    1. Psycho-Sexual Theory (Freud)

    2. Psycho-Social Theory (Erikson)

    3. Cognitive Theory (Piaget)

    4. Theory of Moral Development (Kohlberg)

PSYCHO-SEXUAL THEORY (FREUD)

  • Sigmund Freud's Key Beliefs:

    • Childhood experiences significantly shape adult personalities and behaviors.

    • Development is viewed as discontinuous, occurring in stages.

    • Stages of Psychosexual Development:

    1. Oral Stage

    2. Anal Stage

    3. Phallic Stage

    4. Latency Stage

    5. Genital Stage

    • According to Freud, improper nurturing during any stage could result in fixation at that stage.

PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY (ERIKSON)

  • Erik Erikson's Views:

    • Emphasizes the social aspects of development.

    • Argues personality develops throughout the lifespan, beyond just childhood.

    • Ego Identity: Development is influenced by social interactions, impacting one's sense of self.

    • Eight Stages of Development:

    • Each stage has a psychosocial task that needs to be mastered for competence, focusing on the interplay of personal growth and social expectations.

    • Stages include:

    1. Trust vs. Mistrust

    2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

    3. Initiative vs. Guilt

    4. Industry vs. Inferiority

    5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

    6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

    7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

    8. Integrity vs. Despair

COGNITIVE THEORY (PIAGET)

  • Jean Piaget's Theoretical Framework:

    • Focuses on children's cognitive development over time, proposing specific developmental stages.

    • Development of Schemas: Concepts that help categorize and interpret new information.

    • Two processes involved:

    • Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.

    • Accommodation: Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.

PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

  • Age (Yrs) - Stage - Description - Developmental Issues:

    1. 0-2: Sensorimotor - Interaction with the world through senses.; Key concept: Object permanence.

    2. 2-6: Preoperational - Use of words/images but lacks logic; Exhibits egocentrism.

    3. 7-11: Concrete Operational - Logical understanding of concrete events; Development of mathematical skills.

    4. 12+: Formal Operational - Abstract reasoning and moral reasoning.

THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT (KOHLBERG)

  • Lawrence Kohlberg's Understanding of Moral Development:

    • Identified three broad stages of moral development concerning right and wrong discernment.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

  • Lifespan development stages include:

    1. Prenatal

    2. Infancy through Childhood

    3. Adolescence

    4. Emerging Adulthood

    5. Adulthood

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2):

    • Conception occurs with fertilization of an egg, forming a zygote.

    • Cell division (Mitosis) occurs as the zygote forms organ systems.

  • Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8):

    • Zygote becomes embryo and begins organ function; formation of basic body structures.

    • Placenta provides nourishment from the mother.

  • Fetal Stage (Weeks 9-40):

    • Continued growth and maturation of systems and organs; brain and muscle development accelerate.

PRENATAL INFLUENCES

  • Influences on prenatal development are categorized into genetic and environmental factors; specific factors known as teratogens can cause harm.

    • For example:

    • Alcohol: Can lead to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, the leading preventable cause of intellectual disabilities.

      • Physical features: Small head, abnormal facial features.

      • Cognitive effects: Poor judgment, higher rates of ADHD, and learning issues.

    • Smoking: Associated with premature birth and low birthweight.

    • Drugs: Impact from substances such as heroin and cocaine.

    • Viruses: Impact from exposure to illnesses like HIV.

NEWBORNS: REFLEXES AND SENSORY

  • Newborn Reflexes: Automatic responses vital to survival.

    • Examples:

    • Rooting Reflex: Turning the head when cheek is touched.

    • Sucking Reflex: Sucking on objects placed in the mouth.

    • Grasping Reflex: Clinging to objects in their hands.

    • Moro Reflex: Startling reflex where baby flings arms out and pulls them back in.

  • Sensory abilities: Inborn abilities fully develop post-birth; vision is notably underdeveloped at birth.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANTS

  • Growth Patterns: Significantly rapid growth during infancy, slowing by ages 4-6.

    • Gender differences in growth spurts; girls typically at age 8/9 and boys around age 12.

  • Nervous System:

    • Blooming Period: Rapid formation of neural connections in infancy.

    • Pruning Period: Reduction of connections for efficiency as childhood progresses.

  • Motor Development:

    • Skills develop sequentially from fine motor (smaller actions, like gripping) to gross motor skills (larger body movements, like running).

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

  • Piaget's Perspectives: Cognitive understanding evolves through interaction with the environment, challenged by later research studies (Baillargeon, 1987).

    • Infants show understanding of object permanence much earlier than Piaget suggested.

  • Cognitive Milestones:

    • 6-9 months: Shakes their head in response to “no”.

    • 9-12 months: Responds to verbal cues.

    • 3-5 years: Begins forming concepts of time and sequential thoughts, engages in pretend play.

    • 6-11 years: Logical thought develops, learning basic mathematics, understanding cause-and-effect relationships.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: ATTACHMENT

  • Attachment: A significant bond formed with caregivers, essential for healthy psychosocial development.

  • Studies by Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth are foundational in exploring attachment types and impacts.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: HARRY HARLOW

  • Harlow's Experiment:

    • Used monkeys to study attachment by observing preferences for comfort versus nourishment.

    • Results highlighted the importance of comfort and security over merely fulfilling physical needs.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: JOHN BOWLBY

  • Bowlby's Attachment Theory:

    • Defined attachment as an emotional bond crucial for social and emotional development.

    • Proposed secure base concept: Children need caregivers’ support to explore surroundings safely.

    • Healthy attachment requirements:

    1. Responsive to children's needs.

    2. Engaging in mutually enjoyable interactions.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: MARY AINSWORTH

  • Strange Situation Procedure: Structured observational study to evaluate attachment styles.

    • The procedure involves the caregiver and child interacting, followed by the mother leaving and returning.

  • Attachment Styles Identified:

    1. Secure: Children use parents as a secure base; upset when parent leaves, happy upon return.

    2. Avoidant: Children show little preference between caregiver and stranger; indifferent to caregiver's departure or return.

    3. Resistant: Clingy behavior, distressed when caregiver leaves, conflicted upon return.

    4. Disorganized: Display odd behaviors, confusion, and contradictory responses in the caregiver's presence.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: SELF-CONCEPT

  • Self-Concept:

    • Developing a positive self-identity is crucial during childhood.

    • Positive self-concept correlates with greater confidence, independence, and academic success.

    • Self-recognition emerges at different ages:

    • By 18 months: Mirror recognition.

    • By 24-46 months: Recognition in photos.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: PARENTING STYLES

  • Baumrind's Parenting Styles: Different styles of parenting that affect self-concept:

    1. Authoritative: High demands with support and responsiveness.

    2. Authoritarian: High demands with little warmth or support.

    3. Permissive: Few demands, lack of structure.

    4. Uninvolved: Little response to child's needs, neglectful tendencies.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: TEMPERAMENT

  • Temperament: Innate traits that impact behavior and reaction to the environment.

    • Easy temperament: Adaptable, positive emotions.

    • Difficult temperament: Negative emotions, challenges with regulation and adaptation.

ADOLESCENCE AND PEERS

  • The adolescent stage is heavily influenced by peer relationships, more so than biological changes.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: PUBERTY

  • Adrenarche: Development of adrenal glands with noticeable physical changes.

  • Gonadarche: Maturation of sex organs, leading to secondary sexual characteristics.

    • Girls develop breasts and hips; boys develop facial hair and deeper voices.

    • Menarche: Initial menstrual period (~12-13 years).

    • Spermarche: Initial ejaculation (~13-14 years).

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: BRAIN GROWTH

  • Brain development continues into the 20s, notably the frontal lobe.

    • Responsible for judgments and impulse control; linked to risk-taking behaviors in adolescence.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

  • Adolescent thinking enables logical reasoning and solving hypothetical problems.

    • Cognitive empathy develops, improving perspective-taking and social problem solving.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE

  • Adolescents refine self-identity while navigating influences from peers and parents.

    • Consider parental expectations and the acceptance or opposition to societal norms. - Erikson's stage during adolescence is identity vs. role confusion, where identity exploration is vital.

EMERGING ADULTHOOD

  • Emerging adulthood (18 to mid-20s) reflects a new developmental period focused on identity exploration in love and work. - Reasons for delayed adulthood include societal values placed on education and exploration options.

ADULTHOOD: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Early Adulthood (20s-40s): Peak physical abilities.

  • Middle Adulthood (40s-60s): Gradual physical decline, skin elasticity diminishes, menopause in women, weight gain common, hair thinning.

  • Late Adulthood (60+): Continued decline in physical abilities, including sensory functions.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD

  • Cognitive abilities exhibit stability in early and middle adulthood.

    • Crystallized Intelligence: Involves knowledge acquired through experiences, steady or improving.

    • Fluid Intelligence: Processing abilities decline, but engaging activities can mitigate cognitive decline.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADULTHOOD

  • Job Satisfaction: Linked to engaging work involving interpersonal contact, challenge, and advancement opportunities.

  • Positive relationships enhance well-being; strong bonds influence happiness and stability later in life.

  • Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: Suggests focusing on quality over quantity in relationships as one ages.

DEATH AND DYING

  • Cultural and individual values shape perceptions of death.

    • Kubler-Ross's Five Stages of Grief:

    1. Denial

    2. Anger

    3. Bargaining

    4. Depression

    5. Acceptance

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

  • Definition: Motor development entails the progression of muscle coordination for physical activities. - Maturation: Unfolding of one's genetic blueprint. - Developmental norms: Typical ages at which behaviors and abilities are displayed.

ATTACHMENT PATTERNS

  • Attachment styles observed in infants:

    • Secure Attachment: Active exploration when caregiver is present; distress when they leave. - Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment: Anxiety present even when the caregiver is near; distressed when they leave but not comforted upon return. - Avoidant Attachment: Minimal engagement or distress relative to caregivers.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

  • Language development linked to biological maturation. - Fast Mapping: One exposure enables word-concept mapping. - Overextension/Underextension: Incorrect use of words to describe larger/smaller sets than intended. - Sentence combination begins towards the end of the second year.

  • Telegraphic Speech: Early sentences emphasize content words while omitting less critical terms.

  • Overregularization: Misapplying grammatical rules.

VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

  • Cognitive development fueled through social interactions with knowledgeable others. - Language acquisition is critical to cognitive growth, facilitating problem-solving and self-regulation.

ERIKSON’S STAGE THEORY

  • Each of the eight stages of development addresses a critical psychosocial crisis, often relating to social relationships and individual identity.

KOHLBERG’S STAGE THEORY OF MORAL REASONING

  • Explains the progressive understanding of morality through complex social interactions.

IDENTITY SEARCH BY JAMES MARCIA

  • Proposes four identity statuses:

    1. Identity Diffusion: Lack of commitment or direction.

    2. Identity Foreclosure: Premature commitment without exploration.

    3. Identity Moratorium: Exploration without commitment.

    4. Identity Achievement: Integrative self-direction following alternative considerations.

EMERGING ADULTHOOD STUDIES

  • Recognized as a transitional stage characterized by exploration and psychological growth, often referred to as the “age of feeling in-between.”

GENDER DIFFERENCES

  • Biological Origins: Gender differences stem from behavior, hormonal influences, and brain organization. - Evolution-related factors highlight reproductive roles and labor division.

  • Environmental Influences:

    • Gender roles shaped by societal expectations, operant conditioning, and observational learning. - Self-socialization focuses on aligning behavior with cultural gender appropriateness.