APAH Midterm

AP Art History Notes

Unit 2

2.1- Prehistoric Painting

Prehistoric Period: 

  • Divided into three main time periods:

  1. Paleolithic

  2. Mesolithic

  3. Neolithic

Apollo 11 Stones:


Drawing on stone. A four-legged animal in black silhouette spans two roughly rectangular pieces of flat, brown rock. The animal’s long head faces our left in profile but the species is difficult to make out. The stone must have broken at some point in the past.

  • Found in Namibia, Africa (~25,000 BCE)

  • Animal drawn in charcoal on quartzite stones

  • Discovered in 1969, 7 fragments in total




Lascaux Cave Paintings ("Great Hall of Bulls"):


  • Located in Lascaux, France (15,000-13,000 BCE)

  • Over 650 paintings of animals (bulls, cows, horses)

  • Made with charcoal, earth pigments, plant materials

  • Bulls drawn in profile but showing both horns

  • Speculated purposes:

    •  hunting luck, target practice, shamanism




Running Horned Woman:


Rock painting. Woman is shown running to our right with arms outstretched and one leg kicking up behind her. The painting uses dark brown and white colors. Her skin is dark brown. Her head is covered with a white cap or hair, and a pair of long horns extend from the sides of her head. Three rows of white dots line her shoulders and another band crosses from the shoulder to our left down to the belly. Triangular forms on her chest suggest narrow, stylized breasts, which are also lined with white dots. Her arms curl upward. Translucent, gauze-like material falls from white bands wrapping around her upper arms. Her wrists and hands seem to be capped with white gloves or other coverings that make her arms end in rounded stubs with two miniature, finger-like projections. More white fabric or ribbons trail from the ends of the cuffs. A translucent white cloth covers her hips, and white bands encircle her knees and ankles. Above her head a row of closely spaced vertical lines, like grass, spans the wide horns. A field of white dots falls like snow around her head. Twenty-two miniature people, about the length of the woman’s lower arm, walk, stand, or bend in loose rows across her body, overlapping her torso and hips. The small people are in dark brown silhouette, some linking arms. One more figure near the woman’s front knee could be a twenty-third person missing their head. Smaller in scale, about the height of the main woman’s shin, a second woman is dressed like the first, with a white cap, upper arm bands, pointed breasts, bands of white dots across the torso, and a translucent loincloth. She appears between the main woman’s running legs. We see this person’s torso to the shoulders and down to the waist. An arch like a rainbow made of alternating white and brown lines curves over her head. A few other forms are difficult to make out, including a plant-like form and a shape like an arrowhead, both in white, near the woman’s back leg, to our left. Near the lower right corner, a curved outline like a half moon around a dark center, with lobes, like lopsided bear’s ears, is also difficult to make out. The background is mottled with beige and muted rust brown. 

  • Found in Tassili n'Ajjer, Sahara Desert

  • Depicts a woman in ceremonial clothing(priestess)

  • Over 15,000 images in the region 

  • Shows animals, hunting, and rituals






Beaker from Susa, Iran


Terracotta cup. The sides of this tall, ivory-colored cup flare toward the round rim, painted with dark brown patterns. The stylized ibex stands facing our left in profile with oversized horns curling over its back. The animal’s chest and hind quarters are represented by conjoined triangles, and the legs are straight lines. The horns curving up and back are a little taller than the animal’s body. The horns bend around a circle with a row of angled lines like nested “greater-than” symbols. The ibex is surrounded by a frame of geometric designs. In a narrow band above the frame, exaggeratedly long, thin dogs run to create a ring. Above is a vertically striped band, and the rim is painted brown around the upper edge.  

  • Found near a burial site

  •  Decorated with an ibex (wild goat), birds, and dogs

  •  Created using Neolithic-era pottery technology

  •  Symbolism in the ibex horns may indicate clan or origin

  •  Shows transition to agrarian life



2.2- Prehistoric Sculptures

Portable Sculpture: 

  • Paleolithic people were nomadic, so sculptures were often small and portable.





Camelid Sacrum:


Sculpture. Triangular bone of a canine head with pointed ears, long muzzle, and open holes for eyes and nostrils. The carved bone is angled so the nose is in the lower left corner, and the pointed ears nearly span the top of the image. The areas around the ears, down the side of the face we can see, and the front of the muzzle appear porous and more roughly carved. The bone is smooth across the forehead and down the nose of the animal. Another hole suggests a mouth. An indented ridge runs down the forehead, between the eyes, and to the tip of the nose.

  • Found in Tequixquiac, Mexico (~14,000-7,000 BCE)

  • Carved from the sacrum bone of a camelid

  • Shape of a dog or wolf

  • The sacrum was sacred in Mesoamerican cultures due to         

  • its connection to fertility


Anthropomorphic Stele:


Sculpture. A tablet-shaped slab of tan sandstone is carved to represent a human with blocky, simplified features. This stele is almost straight across the top of the head and then steps down at the narrow shoulders. The sides are also straight, tapering slightly toward the bottom edge. A raised, U-shaped line outlines the jaw and chin. The eyes are two horizontally oriented ovals that touch over a shape like a zipper pull for the nose. Another, wider U could be a collarbone or the neckline of a garment. Two lines cross diagonally from the shoulder to our right to the opposite hip. A belt wraps around the waist, near the bottom of the sculpture. The hilt of a knife is tucked into the belt and the blade hangs down below.

  • From the 4th millennium BCE

  • Found in the Arabian Peninsula

  •  Sandstone sculpture with human-like features

  •  Stylized and geometric, likely served as a grave marker






Jade Cong:


Jade carved into a square around a cylinder. The top surface is smooth, edges carved with bands and geometric designs. The jade appears gray with hints of coppery green in some areas.

  • From the Liangzhu culture, China (Neolithic)

  • Cylindrical shape with square edges, carved 

  •  from jade

  • Jade was hard to work with, symbolized 

  • status and possibly linked to burial rituals

  •  Theories: Cong represents Earth; Bi     represents Heavens





Tlatilco Female Figures:


Sculpture. Figurine of a woman with a narrow waist, flaring hips, and short limbs, with two faces that share an eye. Made from terracotta, the surface is mostly tan colored over the face and shoulders, and is gray on the torso and legs. Stylized hair has been ornamented along the two parts, one over each nose, with rows of red bead-like forms. The three slitted eyes are wide. There are two noses, two slightly smiling mouths, and two ears. The arms end just past the shoulders. Two breasts are widely set on the chest. The bulbous legs end in nubs like the tip of a pinky finger.

  •  Found in Tlatilco, Mexico, made of ceramic

  •  Dual-faced female figures possibly symbolizing  

  • dualism or conjoined twins

  •  Often found in burial sites, with other pottery and 

  • masks






Ambum Stone:


Sculpture. A stylized anteater-like animal curls its long snout over its body to create an oval form. Shaped like a bottom-heavy letter C, a few raised lines on the lower body may suggest legs. Two circles on raised disks could be an ear and an eye across the top center of the carving. The animal ends in a snout-like muzzle curving close to its hindquarters. The surface of the brown stone appears rough or worn.

  •  Found in Ambum Valley, Papua New Guinea

  •  Carved from greywacke stone, zoomorphic(anteater)  

  • Function unclear, possibly a pestle or ritual object








Lapita Pottery:


Incised terra cotta. Geometric designs of and bands of diagonal dashes cover the surfaces of four fragments. The fragments are pieced back together so an overall pattern of circles, clover-like forms, and bands are visible. On the largest fragment, at the bottom, a stylized face is made of an oval shape with a narrow, pointed chin, long lines of incised dots to represent the nose, and more dotted lines for the eyes and mouth.

  •  Found in the Solomon Islands, made by Lapita people

  •  Terra cotta pottery with intricate designs and human-like 

  • figures

  • Spread across Pacific islands due to the Lapita people's 

  • navigation skills

2.3- Prehistoric Architecture

Neolithic Period: 

  • Humans began to settle permanently, grow food, and herd animals.

  • Early examples of architecture were built during this time.

Stonehenge:

  • Located on Salisbury Plains, England

  • Made of megaliths (large stones), including sarsen and bluestones

  • Some stones are over 20 feet tall and weigh more than 50 tons

  • Stones arranged in a horseshoe shape in a henge (circle layout)

  • Constructed with a post and lintel design (two vertical stones supporting a horizontal one)

  • Used mortise and tenon technique (stones shaped to fit together like a puzzle)

  • Likely built in phases over generations

  • May be linked to solar alignment (summer solstice) and used for death or burial ceremonies

Unit 3

3.1-Sumerian Art

Overview of the Sumerians

  • Location: Ancient Near East, in the Fertile Crescent by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

  • Advancements:

    • Developed Cuneiform, the first system of writing, recorded on clay tablets.

    • Established organized cities, governments, and religions.

  • Faith and Devotion: Strong religious beliefs reflected in art and architecture.

Votive Statuettes


Two freestanding sculptures. Man and woman carved from white gypsum have wide-open eyes and stylized features. The man has dark, ridged, shoulder-length hair and a long beard. The woman’s head is covered in a cap-like form. Their round eyes are inlaid with disks of blue shell. Their shoulders are broad and blocky, and their hands noticeably undersized. The man wears a shin-length, skirt-like garment and possibly leg coverings. The woman’s garment drapes across her shoulders and around her body. Both are barefoot and stand on round, disk-like bases.

  • Purpose: Represented individuals in perpetual 

  • prayer to the gods.

  • Material: Carved from gypsum stone, with inlaid 

  • shell and limestone.

  • Design Features:

    • Large eyes symbolize vigilance and 

    • wakefulness.

    • Hands clasped in prayer.

    • Often inscribed with the phrase "it offers 

    • prayers" and sometimes the donor's name.

  • Discovery: Found buried beneath the temple floor at Eshnunna.

  • Significance: Allowed average Sumerians to honor gods when they could not enter temples.

The White Temple at Uruk

  • Dedicated to: Anu, the god of the sky and patron deity of Uruk.

  • Date: Built around 3500 BCE.

  • Structure:

    • Made of mud-brick, atop a ziggurat (elevated temple base).

    • Elevated design symbolized connecting the heavens and the earthly realm.

  • Access:

    • Inner Cella likely reserved for priests and royalty.

    • Ziggurat platform possibly used for larger public rituals.

  • Purpose of Votive Statuettes: To act as stand-ins for worshippers not allowed inside.

The Standard of Ur

  • Discovery: Found in the royal tombs of Ur in modern-day Iraq (excavated in the 1920s).

  • Description:

    • A wooden trapezoidal box, approximately 8.5 inches high and 19.5 inches long.

    • Believed to be part of a sound box for a musical instrument.

  • Sides and Narrative:

    • War Side: Depicts a Sumerian king overseeing captives, with horse-drawn chariots trampling enemies.

      • Uses Hierarchy of Scale: The king is depicted larger to show importance.

    • Peace Side: Celebrates victory with a banquet and procession, again using hierarchy of scale.

  • Materials: Blue lapis lazuli, shell, and red limestone (obtained through trade).

  • Significance:

    • Demonstrates narrative clarity and Sumerian artistic techniques.

    • Reflects active trade and cultural exchange in Mesopotamia.

Sumerian Innovations and Influence

  • Trade and Interaction: Engaged in extensive trade, exchanging materials and ideas.

  • Invaders and Rulers: Frequent changes in rulers led to the spread of Sumerian traditions and innovations to other civilizations.




3.2-Babylonian and Assyrian Art

The Stele of Hammurabi


Carved basalt. This tall, narrow, black stone is carved with two people at the arched top and rows of writing below. The stele is shaped like a long, rounded fingernail. The top fifth shows the two people. To our right, a seated person wearing a long garment and a spiraling, conch shell-like crown holds out a rod in one long-fingered hand. Wavy lines like heat haze come up off his shoulders. The seated person looks to the man standing to our left. That second person wears a helmet-like cap and long robes. He holds one forearm across his waist and the other crosses his chest so his hand is by the opposite shoulder. The block of tiny, tightly spaced text below takes up about half the height of the stele. The bottom zone is smooth.

  • Origin: Created under Hammurabi in the early 

  • 18th century BCE.

  • Material: Carved basalt, standing about 8ft tall.

  • Purpose: Displays over 280 laws with 

  • corresponding punishments in Akkadian 

  • cuneiform (3,500 lines).

  • Content:

    • Covers laws on family, business, contracts, 

    • and property disputes.

  • Imagery:

    • Depicts Shamash, the Sun and Justice God, handing Hammurabi symbols of kingship (rope and rod).

    • Employs foreshortening to create depth in Shamash's depiction.

  • Historical Context: Represents Hammurabi's divine authority and centralized rule (1792–1750 BCE).

Assyrian Art and Architecture

  • Rise of Assyrians: Took control after Babylon's decline in the first millennium BCE.

  • Royal Citadel of Sargon II:

    • Location: Dur Sharrukin (modern Iraq).

    • Features: Fortified walls, enclosed courtyards, and a tall ziggurat (rumored to be seven stories high).


  • Lamassu Statues:


Sculptures. Two carved alabaster creatures have the heads of crowned, bearded men, the bodies of bulls, and wings. The pair are set into a building so they support an arch. In our view their faces look off to our left and their bodies angle back to our right. Each has a tall crown carved with rows of rosettes along the sides and perhaps feathers around the top. The creatures’ full beards come up high on the cheeks on either side of smiling mouths, and the beards are bluntly cut straight across the bottom where they fall down their chests. The bulls’ bodies have broad shoulders and muscular legs with cloven hooves. Wings stretch back across the ribcages and fan up and over the hindquarters.

  • Material: Solid alabaster.

  • Hybrid creatures:human head, bull's body, wings.

  • Size: Nearly 14 feet tall.

  • Legs: Five legs arranged for different perspectives 

  • (front: two legs; side: four legs).

  • Purpose: Symbolic palace guardians, 

  • representing strength and protection.


  • Fall of Assyria: Despite defenses, the Assyrian Empire eventually collapsed, leading to regional instability.


3.3-Persian Art

Overview:

  • The Persian Empire, led by Cyrus II, expanded around 500 BCE and became one of the world's largest and most powerful empires.

  • The architecture of Persepolis, built under Cyrus' successors Darius I and Xerxes, reflects the empire's grandeur.

Key Features of Persepolis:

  • Construction and Layout:

    • Built over 100 years on a plateau of artificial terraces.

    • Included royal buildings, palaces, formal meeting areas, and a grand audience hall called the apadana.

  • Entrance:

    • The "Gate of All Nations" was the main entrance, flanked by giant lamassu statues.

  • Apadana (Audience Hall):

  • A massive space used for receptions and festivals, capable of hosting thousands of guests.

  • Originally had 36 colossal columns over 60 feet high with elaborately carved capitals.

  • The capitals featured designs in the shape of bulls or lions and had an inverted lotus base.

  • Art and Decoration:

    • The hall and structures were decorated with bas relief sculptures of royal guards, dignitaries, and tributes from subject nations.

    • The structures were likely painted in bright colors, now faded with time.

Historical Context:

  • Persepolis was sacked and destroyed by Alexander the Great of Macedonia in 330 BCE.

  • The art and architecture of Persepolis were influenced by various cultures, including Ancient Greece.

Significance:

  • Persepolis represents the power and cultural achievements of the Persian Empire and its lasting influence on later civilizations.

4.1- Egyptian Art

Categories of Art: Commemorative and funerary.

Early Egyptian History: Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt, unified by King Narmer.

Palette of King Narmer (c. 3000 BCE):

  • Low relief sculpture carved from slate.

  • Celebrates the unification of Egypt.

  • Features hieroglyphics and symbolic imagery.

  • Used for mixing makeup for the king’s eyes.

  • Depicts Narmer in larger scale to show importance (Hierarchy of Scale).

Seated Scribe (c. 2600-2500 BCE):

  • Limestone sculpture of a scribe, a respected social position.

  • Depicted with realistic, sagging features.

  • Shows scribe holding papyrus, prepared to write.

Menkaura and His Queen (c. 2490 BCE):

  • Sculpture from the old kingdom.

  • King Menkaura is shown with formal, idealized posture.

  • The Queen depicted with a gentle expression, arms around the king.

  • Carved from greywacke and appears partially unfinished.

Amarna Period:

  • Under Pharaoh Akhenaten (formerly Amenhotep IV), art shifted.

  • Depicted with long, curved lines, elongated features, and more natural forms.

  • Akhenaten and family are shown in a relaxed, intimate portrayal.

  • Aten, the sun god, represented by a disk with rays.

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters:

King Tutankhamun:

  • Came to power as a young boy, reigned until age 18.

  • Restored worship of Amun, ending the Amarna period.

  • Tomb discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter, largely untouched.

  • Contained gold coffins, a funerary mask, and burial items.

"Book of the Dead":

  • A guide to the afterlife, buried with the deceased.

  • "Last Judgement of Hu-Nefer":

    • Illustrates the heart being weighed against the feather by Anubis.

    • Represents the moment of judgement.

    • Hu-Nefer shown presenting offerings to Osiris and Hathor.

Egyptian Art Characteristics:

  • Kings depicted in idealized, perfect form.

  • Non-royals shown more realistically.

  • Hierarchy of Scale used to indicate importance.

Funerary Practices:

  • Pharaohs were mummified and buried with possessions for the afterlife.

  • King Tut's tomb is especially significant due to its intact state.


4.2- Egyptian Architecture

General Overview: 

  • Egyptian architecture was deeply connected to the religious and burial practices of ancient Egypt, focusing on creating structures to honor gods and pharaohs and to provide for the Ka (soul) in the afterlife.

Mastabas: 

  • Early burial structures with flat roofs and sloping sides, built above ground with burial chambers below.






Pyramids and Sphinx: 

  • Pyramids: Evolved from mastabas into more complex structures, with the Great Pyramids at Giza built for pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Constructed using massive limestone blocks moved by large workforces, these pyramids also featured adjoining mortuary temples for worship.

  • Sphinx: A limestone statue with the body of a lion and the head of a human, believed to represent Pharaoh Khafre. Originally painted and symbolizing Ra, the sun god.

Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak:

  • Structure: Features a hypostyle hall with over 134 columns; larger center columns with papyrus capitals, smaller ones with bud-shaped capitals.

  • Clerestory Design: Raised roof with windows or slats to allow light, a concept still influential in modern architecture.

  • Artistic Details: Columns were covered in sunken relief carvings and originally painted in bright colors.

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut:

  • Historical Context: Built for one of the first female pharaohs who ruled from 1478 to 1458 BCE. Known for wearing male pharaoh attire to assert authority.

  • Structure: Carved into a cliff with three terraced levels and colonnaded facades. Originally included lush gardens of frankincense and myrrh.

  • Erasure: After her death, Thutmose III tried to eliminate her legacy, removing her name from records and destroying her images.

Unit 4

5.1-Archaic Greek Art

  • Historical Context: Greece is known as the birthplace of Western civilization, influencing future cultures through its art and architecture. Greek art is categorized into three main time periods: Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic.

  • Archaic Greek Sculptures:

    • Kouros and Kore: Large grave markers; kouros for men and kore for women.


  • "Anavysos Kouros":

    •  A famous kouros statue honoring a young warrior named Kroisos, who died in battle. His name is inscribed on the base.

  • "Peplos Kore": 

    • A notable female statue from the Archaic period, depicted with the Archaic smile and wearing a traditional Greek peplos garment.

  • Stylistic Features:

    • Idealized Form: Statues do not depict actual individuals but an idealized version of the human form.

    • Archaic Smile: A characteristic feature meant to make the stone sculptures appear more lifelike.

    • Pose: The figures are posed with squared shoulders, arms at the sides, and legs appearing to step forward. The stance is rigid and less natural compared to later periods.

    • Material and Technique: Sculpted from marble, Greek statues were created in the round, meaning they were freestanding and viewable from all angles. Statues were originally painted, but pigment has mostly worn away over time.

  • Comparison to Egyptian Art:

    • Similarities: Both focus on strong, muscular forms and idealized representations.

    • Differences: Unlike Egyptian statues, Greek male sculptures were often depicted nude, showcasing the human body more openly.

  • Transition to Classical Greek Art: The more naturalistic and dynamic forms, as well as more lifelike depictions of the human body, emerge in the Classical period, moving away from the stiffness of Archaic art.

5.2-Classical Greek Art

Overview: Classical Greek art focused on naturalism, proportion, and harmony. It marked a significant departure from the rigid Archaic style.

Sculpture:

  • Spear Bearer (Doryphoros):

    •  Sculpted by Polykleitos, this statue exemplifies the use of contrapposto (a naturalistic pose balancing weight between the legs, hips, and shoulders). It set the standards for proportion through Polykleitos' "Canon," defining the ideal human ratio as 1:7 (head to body size).

  • Victory Adjusting Her Sandal: 

    • From the Temple of Athena Nike in Athens, this high-relief sculpture displays realistic movement and natural body form, emphasizing wet drapery to depict clothing clinging to the body.

  • Grave Stele of Hegeso: 

    • Likely by sculptor Kallimachos, this grave marker shows Hegeso examining a jewelry piece, highlighting naturalistic forms and the Classical era's attention to detail.




Pottery:

  • Kraters: 

    • Large vessels used for mixing wine and water or as grave markers. The Niobides Krater (c. 460 BCE) depicts the myth of Niobe's punishment by Apollo and Artemis. The red-figure technique allowed greater detail compared to the earlier black-figure method, with figures shown in realistic postures using foreshortening and contrapposto.

Themes: Greek art during this period demonstrated an idealized, yet realistic, portrayal of the human body and movements, reflecting an understanding of balance and proportion.

Key Terms:

  • Canon (Polykleitos): Set of rules defining ideal human proportion.

  • Contrapposto: Naturalistic pose showing weight balance between body parts.

  • Red-Figure Technique: Pottery painting style with black backgrounds and red figures, allowing more detailed representations.

5.3-Hellenistic Greek Art

General Characteristics:

  • Hellenistic Greek art is marked by heightened naturalism and emotional expression.

  • Artworks depict dramatic movement and extreme emotions, going beyond the Classical period's ideals.

Key Works:

  • Nike of Samothrace (Winged Victory):

  • Form: Marble sculpture, dynamic movement, detailed wet drapery technique.

  • Function: Commemorates a naval victory, possibly in a fountain setting.

  • Content: Depicts the goddess Nike in contrapposto, leaning forward against the wind, with fabric and wings showing movement.

  • Context: Originally placed on the island of Samothrace; now in the Louvre, Paris.

  • Athena from the Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon:

  • Form: Relief sculpture, shows strong movement and emotional intensity.

  • Function: Depicts the Gigantomachy battle, emphasizing Athena's victory and power.

  • Content: Athena dragging a giant by the hair, Nike crowning her, with Gea watching in despair.

  • Context: Part of a larger altar relief; highlights Hellenistic drama and emotion.

  • Seated Boxer:

  • Form: Bronze sculpture using the lost-wax method, rare surviving Greek bronze.

  • Function: Represents an athlete post-battle, emphasizing realism over idealized form.

  • Content: Slumped, battered boxer with a weary expression, blood on arms and hands.

  • Context: Demonstrates raw emotion, contrasting with the idealized figures of Classical art.




  • Alexander Mosaic:

  • Form: Mosaic, Roman copy of a Hellenistic mural painting.

  • Function: Illustrates the battle between Alexander the Great and Darius III.

  • Content: Detailed and contorted figures with foreshortening, showing emotional and physical strain.

  • Context: Found in the House of the Faun, Pompeii; exemplifies Hellenistic focus on realism and dramatic emotion.

Themes:

  • Hellenistic art pushed the boundaries of naturalism, portraying complex human and animal postures.

  • Strong emphasis on emotion, movement, and action, creating art that evokes powerful viewer reactions.

5.4-Greek Architecture

General Overview:

  • Greek architecture focused on creating temples for the gods.

  • Key characteristics include mathematical proportions, harmony, and naturalistic design.



Significant Structures:

  • Agora of Athens:

  • Central public meeting space; included over 20 structures.

  • Served for elections, meetings, religious ceremonies, and commercial activities.

  • Featured stoas (covered hallways) and a bouleuterion (senate meeting space).

  • Acropolis:

  • A hilltop complex with over ten temples and shrines dedicated to Greek gods.

  • Centered on the Parthenon, dedicated to Athena.

  • Parthenon:

    • Architects: Iktinos and Kallikrates.

    • Columns: Doric exterior, Ionic interior.

    • Design: Harmonious proportions (x = 2y + 1); columns slightly bent and stylobate curved to create optical perfection.

    • Interior: Included a large statue of Athena.

    • Pediment: Sculptures by Phidias, including Helios and Dionysos in the east pediment.

    • Panathenaic Frieze: Wraps around the temple, depicting the Panathenaic Festival; includes the "Plaque of Ergastines."

  • Temple of Athena Nike:

  • Ionic temple with columns only at the front and back.

  • Location of the relief sculpture "Nike Adjusting Her Sandal."

  • Erechtheion:

    • Notable for caryatids, columns shaped as female figures.

  • Great Altar of Zeus and Athena (Pergamon):

  • Located in present-day Turkey; frieze depicts Gigantomachy, symbolizing Greek victory over enemies.

  • Sculptures show Athena dragging a giant, connecting divine victory to historical Greek triumphs.

Key Features:

  • Stylobate: The base of a temple.

  • Pediment: Triangle above columns.

  • Cella: Main room housing the statue of the deity.

  • Doric vs. Ionic:

    • Doric: Simple, flat capitals.

    • Ionic: Decorated, scroll-like capitals.

  • Naturalism: Sculptures emphasized realistic human figures and movement.

Influence:

  • Greek architecture influenced modern design, emulated for its beauty and structural principles.

6.1-Etuscan Art

Overview:

  • Etruscans lived in Etruria (modern Italy) before the Romans.

  • Temples made of mud brick and wood; little survives today.

Temples:

  • Raised on a podium with stairs leading to the entrance.

  • Terracotta statues placed on rooftops (e.g., Apollo from Veii).

"Apollo from Veii":


Sculpture. Terra cotta statue of a faintly smiling man wearing a knee-length toga as he steps forward. The man has a gold-colored covering across the top of his head. Long braids or twisted locks rest over his shoulders. His large eyes are painted white with black pupils, and his curving brows lead down to a straight nose. He steps forward onto his right foot, both knees slightly bent. He lifts his right arm, but the forearm and hand have been broken off. The other arm is missing just below the shoulder. His ivory-white toga covers his chest and shoulders, and a piece of fabric crosses his body and drapes up over his shoulder. The edges of that fabric are brown, and they create zig-zagging lines to each side. The man’s skin is brown. He strides over an object, almost knee high, made of mirrored S-shaped scrolls.

  • The Terracotta statue dated to ~510 BCE.

  • Sculpted by Vulcan of Veii, features an Archaic Greek smile.

  • Dynamic pose, appears in mid-step.


Burial Practices:

  • Deceased placed in tumuli (earthen mounds) with decorated interiors.

  • Artifacts and wall paintings often accompanied the dead.

"Tomb of the Triclinium":

  • Located in Tarquinia, Italy.

  • Features banquet scenes with reclining figures, musicians, and dancers.

  • Men painted darker than women, per ancient conventions.

"Sarcophagus of the Spouses":

  • Terracotta sarcophagus holding ashes of a married couple.

  • Sculpture shows a relaxed, happy couple, possibly holding an egg (symbolizing life after death).

  • Highlighting the high status of women in Etruscan culture.

  • Realistic torsos and heads, less realistic legs.

Legacy:

  • Romans conquered Etruscans but adopted aspects of their artistic style.

7.1-Roman Architecture

Founding Legend: Rome was founded by Romulus after defeating and killing his brother, Remus.

Cultural Influences: Roman architecture blends Greek and Etruscan features. Example: Temple of Fortuna Virilis combines Greek columns with Etruscan porch and stairs.

Key Innovations

  • Concrete: Revolutionized construction with strength and versatility, enabling arches, vaults, and domes.

  • Barrel Vaults & Arches: Allowed larger, more stable structures.

Structures

  1. Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)

  • Built: 70 CE under Emperor Vespasian.

  • Purpose: Hosted gladiator battles, animal hunts, and naval battles.

  • Design: Concrete core, brick/travertine exterior, and numbered gates.

  • Seating: Social hierarchy—senators closest; slaves, poor, and women at the top.

  • Facade: Three levels of engaged columns: Tuscan (ground), Ionic (middle), Corinthian (top).

  • Velarium: Roof shade for weather protection.

  1. Forum of Trajan

  • Built by Emperor Trajan and architect Apollodorus of Damascus.

  • Included: Basilica Ulpia (civic meetings), libraries, shops, and statues.

  • Market of Trajan: Multi-level semi-circular shopping complex using barrel vaults.

  1. Pantheon

  • Original by Markus Agrippa; rebuilt by Hadrian.

  • Design: Greek-style facade with Corinthian columns, massive circular dome with oculus.

  • Dome Innovations: Coffers lighten weight; lower dome uses strong concrete, top uses pumice.

  • Purpose: Temple for all gods, showcasing Roman engineering.

  1. House of the Vettii


House. We look through shadowed rooms at a sunken basin under an opening in the ceiling, with a courtyard beyond. Sunlight pours into the courtyard, which is on the far side of the building from us. Touches of green suggest plants around columns framing the space. The shadowy room we are in has a roof with a rectangular opening over the basin.

  • Wealthy Roman home in Pompeii w/ open 

  • atrium and peristyle garden.

  • Features: Impluvium (rainwater basin), 

  • cubicula (bedrooms), and fresco wall paintings.

  • Preservation: Volcanic ash from Mount 

  • Vesuvius preserved artifacts and frescoes.



Key Terms

  • Oculus: Circular hole at the dome's center for light.

  • Coffers: Square cutouts in domes to reduce weight.

  • Atrium: Central open-air space in Roman homes.

  • Impluvium: Basin to collect rainwater.

  • Peristyle: Column-surrounded garden.

7.2-Roman Art

  • Frescoes: Wall and ceiling paintings using pigments on wet plaster; became fixed as plaster dried.

  • First Pompeian Style: Framed sections mimicking stone/marble.

  • Second Style: Created illusion of depth with landscapes/mythological scenes, giving an "outside world" feel.

  • Third Style: Simple designs, delicate column frames, and miniature landscapes.

  • Fourth Style: Combined all previous styles with painted marble, large scenes, and delicate framed works.

Notable Works:

  • "Pentheus Fresco" (House of the Vettii): Fourth Style; depicts "The Death of Pentheus," mythological story.

  • Sculpture:

    • Veristic busts: Detailed, realistic portraits honoring wisdom and experience (e.g., "Head of a Roman Patrician").

  • Augustus of PrimaPorta: Idealized portrayal of Augustus, with military imagery and symbolism of divine ancestry (e.g., Cupid).

  • Monuments:

    • Ara Pacis: Commemorated Augustus' peace era (Pax Romana).

  • Column of Trajan: 100-foot column detailing Trajan’s victory over the Dacians with 2,500 figures in 150 episodes.

  • Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: 250 CE; chaotic battle scene between Romans and Goths, illustrating Late Imperial art's shift to more dramatic, disorganized style.

Historical Context:

  • Early Empire: Idealized, harmonious art reflecting power and prosperity.

  • Late Empire: Chaotic, crowded art symbolizing Rome's turmoil, reflected in the sarcophagus' depiction.

  • Constantine's Impact: Shifted the capital to Constantinople, signed the Edict of Milan for Christian tolerance, leading to long-term changes in the empire.