"The law locks up the man or woman, who steals the goose from off the common, but leaves the greater villain loose, who steals the common from the goose."
Crime: A Central Societal Concern
Crime is a central concern for society, government, the public, and the mass media.
Different approaches to understanding crime share a commitment to the modernist approach.
The modernist approach aims to construct a valid explanation of crime to develop prevention strategies.
Social Control
Socialization and social control maintain social conformity.
Social control consists of formal agencies (law) and informal agencies (peer pressure/disapproval).
Functions of Crime (Durkheim)
Durkheim argues that crime serves a purpose in society:
Clarifies social boundaries by defining what society will and will not tolerate.
Acts as an agent of social change and reform (e.g., same-sex marriage).
Strengthens social cohesion and assists the social order through collective consciousness.
Brings people together when certain events take place.
Definitions: Crime and Deviance
Crime: Behavior against the law, i.e., law-breaking.
Deviance: Any non-conformist behavior disapproved of by society or a subgroup; norm-breaking behavior ranging from eccentricity to criminality.
Definition Difficulties: Crime and Deviance
Crime is easily defined by law.
Deviance covers a large area of behaviors; what is considered deviant depends on:
Time
Place
Society/subgroup
Attitudes of those who view the act
Non-Deviant Crime
Many illegal acts aren't considered deviant (e.g., speeding, illegal parking).
Some offenses are seen as expected behavior; non-participants are seen as deviant (e.g., underage drinking).
Time: Deviance is defined relative to norms, which change over time.
Societal and Social Group Norms
Society: Norms and definitions of deviance differ between societies (e.g., alcohol consumption).
Social Groups: Norms vary between social groups in the same society.
Acceptable behavior in one group can be deviant in wider society (e.g., marijuana use).
Place: Where an act takes place influences whether it is regarded as deviant or not.
Explaining Crime/Deviance
It is impossible to be born a criminal or deviant.
Crime and deviance involve legal and social rules.
What counts as criminal or deviant depends on social rules and norms.
Why Some Deviant Acts Are Criminal While Others Are Not
Consensus Approach:
Social rules are made and enforced for everyone's benefit.
There is consensus that some deviant acts are serious and require legal sanction.
Explains various societal norms (e.g., soft drugs/alcohol).
Conflict Approach:
The law reflects the interests of the most powerful in society.
Ideas are imposed through agencies of social control.
Anything against their interests is considered deviant.
Different Theories on Crime
Classicist/Rational Choice Theory:
A person is a free agent with a rational thought process.
Crime is a choice for the individual, who is responsible for their actions.
Positivism:
People commit crime due to innate characteristics (biological and psychological).
Crime is "in the genes" or "in the mind."
Sociological:
An individual's experience of their environment are the main explanations of criminal activity.
Classical Criminology
Beccaria: Father of the classicist criminological perspective.
Person is rational and exercises free will.
Person has free choices, and criminals make a deliberate choice to break the law.
People should be free to do as they wish, as long as their actions do not interfere with the happiness and contentment of others.
Classic Criminology (Continued)
Classicism is directly linked to liberalism.
The individual is responsible for their own lives with minimum/no interference and regulation from the state.
The criminal justice system must operate in a fair and logical way.
Punishments need to be consistent and proportionate to the offense.
"The certainty of punishment, even if it be moderate, will always make a stronger impression than the fear of another which is more terrible but combined with the hope of impunity" (Beccaria).
Classicism and the Social Contract
Classicism believes the social order is based on the social contract.
Society evolved so that people banded together to protect life and property.
The state can punish because criminality is an attack on society and a breach of the social contract.
Classicist Critics
Assumes all men are free, rational, and equal, which is not true.
Why is there a relationship between social class and criminal activity?
If men are rational, and the legal system proportional and just, why is there a high rate of recidivism (reoffending)?
Positivism
Positivist theory states that man has no free choice, but their behaviour is determined by other factors (psychological, biological, and sociological).
Positivist theories focus on the characteristics and causes of a criminal type.
Positivist criminology argues that criminal behaviour is not often rational and is linked to other factors (e.g., poverty, environment, family).
Psychological Approaches
Focus on personality and cognitive development.
Associates certain personality traits with criminality.
Psychodynamic theory: Differences in individual make up makes some more pre disposed to criminal activity.
Theory of psychoanalysis focuses on personality structure and it’s influence on human behaviour.
Classicism vs. Positivism
Classicism: Individuals are conscious beings with an ability to act as they choose.
Positivism: Behaviour is influenced by biological, psychological, or sociological factors.
Criminologists recognize the connection between biological, psychological, and social factors, with more emphasis on either one depending on one’s philosophy.
Labelling Theory
Labelling theory (Howard Becker): People are not offenders until they are labelled as such.
Criminals are the product of social reaction.
A person is labelled, often segregated from society, associates with other outsiders, the label sticks, and those labelled may continue to live up to their title.
Labelling influences the person’s sense of self.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
"The situation where social actors construct their self- image from the reactions of powerful and persuasive others, thereby acting out or living up to the characteristics attributed to them, thus confirming the original evaluation" (Bilton et al,2002: 390)
Who Labels?
Power is important in how society makes and enforces its rules.
Those with power benefit; those without power often suffer.
Who defines what’s right and wrong?
Those who generally make rules are people with a stake in society: Men vs Women, Rich vs Poor, Majorities vs Minorities.
Control Theory
Control Theory focuses on why people do not commit crime.
Originates in the 16th century - Hobbes.
Fear is a powerful influence on behavior.
Hirschi argues that the bonds and attachments that people possess/do not possess explain their behavior.
Correlation between high attachment and low delinquency.
Social Bonds and Crime
Social bonds pull people away from crime.
Inadequate self-control from weak social bonds can force people into crime, but also the opportunity for offending must be present.
Criticism of control theory includes not explaining why some have weaker bonds than others.
It also does not recognize crime within tight social bonds.
Strain Theory - Merton 1
Merton argues that most people try to achieve society’s goals in approved ways, i.e., they conform.
He rejects the individualistic explanations of crime linked to characteristics of the criminal.
Deviance arises when the approved ways of achieving society’s goals do not correspond with the actual position individuals find themselves in (e.g., living in poverty).
A sense of not belonging (anomie) in society develops.
Merton attempted to explain the relationship between the social structure, anomie, and crime rates.
A strain develops when people want to achieve societal goals but lack the opportunity by conventional means to achieve them.
Merton 2
Values are learned from the cultural norms of society.
The “American Dream” ensured that society was structured so hard work was rewarded with material success.
Some people develop anomie when they cannot succeed, and a “strain” develops.
Individuals adapt to the strain of having opportunities blocked by the lack of institutional means to succeed.
Merton 3: Five Modes of Adaptation
Conformity: Accept societal goals and attempt to achieve them by legitimate means.
Innovators: Try to achieve success by illegitimate means.
Ritualists: Continue to work within the system but give up trying to achieve success.
Retreatists: Abandon goals and drop out of society.
Rebels: Reject societies' goals and the means of achieving them, and try to replace them with their own.
Test: Merton's Strain Theory
Classify each of the following acts/groups according to Merton’s strain theory:
Someone cheating in exams.
A civil servant who has no interest in the job but continues working.
A heroin addict.
A member of Al Qaeda.
A newly qualified accountant.
Theory of Differential Association
Sutherland (1934) argued that deviance is learned through interaction with others in society.
Sutherland’s theory of differential association is based on the frequency of association with other people.
In a society with different subcultures, some environments encourage criminal activity.
Criminal activity is learned in the same way as any other activity.
The Company You Keep
“Birds of a feather flock together” (Curry).
Young people are attracted to gangs for many reasons (e.g., group identity, protection, and monetary gain).
Curry recognizes that Sutherland’s theory is limited because it does not address why most people who live in high crime areas do not commit crime.
Deviance Amplification
Moral Panics and Folk Devils.
Deviance Amplification: “A spiraling sequence of interaction between deviants and those reacting to their behavior (typically agents of control, such as the police), which generates further deviance and therefore further punitive responses.”
Event >>>> Media Hype >>>>> Over Response >>>>> Expectations >>>> Event.
Moral Panics: Society reacting to deviant/criminal behavior.
Folk Devils: The group who threaten society.
Control Theory (Revisited)
Control theory asks why most people DO NOT commit crime.
Theorists like Hirschi argue that most people could be tempted to commit crime, but social bonds prevent them from doing so.
Four social bonds are identified: belief, attachment, commitment, and involvement.
Four Social Bonds (Explained)
Belief: People share similar moral beliefs (e.g., respect for the law and community values).
Attachment: Attached to and sensitive of family and community.
Commitment: Committed to conventional activities like work, education. They have a stake in conforming to norms.
Involvement: Involved in many activities and don’t have an opportunity to become involved in crime.
Control Theory Evaluation
Suggests we are all potential criminals and require monitoring and controlling.
Its functionalist base recognizes the importance of social control and socialization.
Assumes criminals have no mainstream values.
It ignores that you can have social bonds and be a criminal.
It doesn’t explain why people with weak bonds don’t all turn to crime.
Marxist Criminology
Structural-conflict model of society.
Rejects positivist accounts of crime.
Crime is an inevitable consequence of unequal power structures in society.
Crime committal and crime figures only tell a small part of the story.
Crime is a result of only one of a number of related social problems, all of which arise because of inequality.
Left Realism
Move away from Marxist oversimplification of crime.
Realization that crime and fear of crime is a real situation, and simply blaming capitalism does not do justice to the real situation.
Left realism explained crime with reference to the state, offender, society, and the victim.
Most crime is intra class.
Left Realism (Continued)
Acknowledges that there is a significant association with deprivation, marginalization, and subculture.
Recognizes the reality of crime and the need for radical solutions - “tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime.”
Left realism provides a multidimensional framework for understanding crime and the interactions between the victim, offender, state, and wider society.
Right Realism
Critique of liberal sociological theorizing about crime.
Associated with New Right neo-liberal doctrine.
Focuses on containment and control.
Deterrence is a byword.
Right Realism (Continued)
The welfare state has contributed to an increase in crime.
A sense of personal responsibility diminished.
Reasons for crime are liberal parenting, permissiveness, liberal social policies, etc.
Zero tolerance and active citizenship are right realists' solution to crime.