Exhaustive Study Notes on Tamils and Technology

Introduction to the History of Clothing and Sangam Era Evidences

• Original Human State: When the world originated, man lived without clothes, similar to animals. Knowledge of the elements—air, water, earth, sky, and fire—led to shame and the initial use of leaves and barks as covering.

• Evolution of Materials: Clothing evolved from foliage and barks to the skins of deer and tigers. Intelligence eventually led to the development of weaving cotton yarn into fabrics.

• Sangam Period Evidences: Poems from the Kurinchi Thinai provide messages of wearing foliage and girdle dresses.

  • Narikuravas: Wore dresses woven from Maral, a type of cactus.

  • Nilak Kodichiyar: Wore leaf dresses made from the shoots of the Asoka tree.

• Literary Proofs:

  • Natrinai (64:4)

  • Kurunthokai (24:4-5)

Tamils and Technology: Sculptural and Terminology Evidence

• Sculptural Evidence ($200\,\text{BC} - 100\,\text{AD}$):

  • Locations: Amaravathi and Jagkaiyapet ($Andhra Nadu$).

  • Men’s Attire: Turbans, pleated garments hanging down to the knee, flower-designed girdles, and small stitched pieces hanging from them.

  • Women’s Attire: Sarees hanging down to the knees; knots made of four-square pieces of cloth on their heads.

• Later Sculptures ($100\,\text{AD} - 400\,\text{AD}$):

  • Men wore dhotis, tops, and turbans.

  • Women wore sarees on the waist with a small top piece and a turban-like cloth on the head.

  • Twisted garments hung in two or three rows ending to the right below the waist.

  • Anomalies: Only one sculpture depicts covered female breasts; otherwise, women are shown bare-chested.

  • Monks: Wore clothes made of tree bark, grass, and fruit peel.

• Terminology for Clothing (from Pathuppattu):

  • Leaf Dress: Narikurava women used mango leaves and bouquets; Neithal women used shoots and flowers.

  • Dhukil: Fine clothes washed with mash; used by kings.

  • Kalingam: Garments made by dirty thread, worn by queens during separation.

  • Katchai/Katchu: Girdles; Kurunji chiefs wore finely carved girdles; the Queen tied a "vambu" (kachu) on her chest.

  • Padam: Modern term for shirt. Soldiers guarding highways in the Thondai Country wore these.

  • Meipai: A shirt worn by Yavanans (foreigners) above the waist.

  • Sithar/Sitharvai: Dirty torn rags.

  • Kaazhagam: Garments worn by priests, sent from the town of Kadaram.

  • Aruvai: High-quality fine embroidered dresses for the rich and kings.

  • Kandam: Rough cloth used to wrap around tents like a wall.

The Weaving Industry in the Sangam Period

• Antiquity: Referenced in Tolkappiyam ($427$), a grammar book predating Sangam Literature.

• Raw Material (Cotton):

  • Produced domestically; grown in abundance, often looking like a fence around towns.

  • Packing: Collected cotton was packed in bundles and brought home (Purananooru $393$).

  • Ginning: Nuts/seeds were removed, leaving fluff that looked like white clouds ($Akatianooru 133-6$).

• Cotton Women (Paruthi Pendir):

  • Women without male partners managed weaving at home as a small business.

  • Tools: A bow was used to separate cotton from the cocoon; the cocoon was pounded to remove outer skin and dust.

  • Working Hours: Conducted work even at night using lanterns.

  • Panuval: The name given to the yarn spun by these women.

• Fabric Types:

  • Thin Fabrics: Resembled milk spirit or thin paper woven with fine thread ($Malaipadukadam 565$).

  • Snake Skin Designs: High-quality clothes with floral patterns resembling snake skin shirts ($Purananooru 397-15$).

  • Rough Cloth: Produced from the inner core of bamboo ($Sirupanattrupadai 83$).

  • Silk: Woven using silk thread and rat hair; weavers were called "Nun Vinaikarugar" ($Silapathikaram$).

Pottery (Ceramic) Technology and Scientific Analysis

• Terminology: Known as "Kuyaththozhil"; potters are called "Kuyavar".

• Pottery Process: Requires suitable clay, time for shaping, and specific temperature ($kiln conversion$).

• Rotators (Thiruvai):

  • Ball Point Rotator: Features a small ball at the bottom and a hollow plinth; tilts when it stops rotating. Only holds a small amount of soil.

  • Cone-slot Rotator: Features a black stone conical structure. Can hold large amounts of soil. Often operated by a man shaping the clay and his wife spinning the wheel.

• Clay Chemistry:

  • Primary Mineral: Kaolinite.

  • Composition: $40\% \text{ Aluminium Oxide}$, $46\% \text{ Silicon Oxide}$, and $14\% \text{ Water}$.

  • Layers: First layer (heavy, dense, pure rock-based) and Second layer (alluvial, finer, sedimentary).

• Kizhadi Excavation Analysis:

  • Pots found were for cooking and water collection.

  • Technique remained consistent from $6\,\text{th Century BC}$ to $2\,\text{nd Century BC}$.

  • Black and Red Ware (BRW): Red derived from hematite (iron mineral); black derived from charcoal/organic matter.

  • Firing Temperature: Heated at $1100\,^\circ C$.

• Nanotechnology in Kizhadi Pottery:

  • Presence of Carbon Nanotubes confirmed in the black coating on the inner shell.

  • Durability: Tensile strength is $100\,\text{times}$ higher than steel of the same size, preventing disintegration for over $2000\,\text{years}$.

  • Nanotube Size: Single-walled ($0.5 - 2.5\,\text{nm}$) and Multi-walled ($7 - 100\,\text{nm}$).

• Scratch Codes / Graffiti:

  • Indus script descriptions (writing right to left) discovered on pots.

  • Adichanallur and Mangulam provide pot shells with symbols.

  • The word "Velaan" or "Velaalar" found on shells (dating to $3\,\text{rd Century BC}$).

Design and Construction Technology: Residential Architecture

• Manai (Residential House): Included Thinnai (platform), Pillar, Courtyard, Staircase, Window, and Gate.

• Classification:

  • Sirtil: Small/little house, often referring to mini-designs or mud houses built by girls for play.

  • Peril: Houses designed on a large scale; lyrics mention decaying elements in older habitable structures.

• House Structures:

  • Munril: Front landscape and pandal structure with slanted spikes. Used as an open space for resting.

  • Iraippai: Corridor portion indicated as "Ira" or "Iravanam"; narrow eaves in smaller huts (Kurambai).

  • Pial/Thinnai: Platform in front of the house for sitting or sleeping; some were stone-paved.

• Construction Foundation:

  • Kadaikkal: A hole dug at a particular time prior to building.

  • Bearing Platform/Asthivaram: Uses lime and karuppatti (palm jaggery) for solidity.

• Tree Classification for Construction:

  • Male Tree: Used for door posts, pillars, and balconies.

  • Female Tree: Used for uthiram, vittam, arches, and porches.

  • Eunuch Tree: Used for small frames, handrails, and fences.

Traditional Construction Materials and Hero Stones

• Materials: Wood, brick (clay units), suthai (lime + wooden sticks), bamboo, and straw.

• Kizhadi Binding Factor: Analysis at Vellore University of Technology revealed high quality:

  • Bricks/Tiles: > 80\% \text{ Silica}.

  • Binding Factor: > 7\% \text{ lime}.

  • Lime Mortar: > 97\% \text{ lime}.

• Hero Stones (Nadukal):

  • Erected for dead soldiers/martyrs. Practice exists since the Stone Age.

  • Names: Vethiappan, Krishnarappan, Meenarappan, Sanyasiappan, Anjaneya Stone.

  • Structure: Depicted in combat posture with bow/arrow or sword/shield; some show arrows piercing the body. Some depict the hero fighting tigers or elephants.

  • Chicken Stones: Erected for dead roosters in chicken fights.

  • Worship: Included ghee lamps, flowers, and incense (smoke rising like clouds).

• Household Tools:

  • Aryakkal/Enthiram: Stone tool for grinding ragi/grains into powder; features a fixed bottom stone and revolving top stone.

  • Ural (Plunger): Stone/wood cylinder used to remove paddy husk. Rainfall was measured in "plough rain" units via the ural (pit full = $1\,\text{inch}$).

  • Ammi/Kuzhavi: Flat base stone and rolling stone for grinding chili paste.

  • Sugar Factory (Sugarcane Squeezer): Wooden rollers rotated by cattle to extract juice.

Temple Architecture: Pallava, Chola, and Nayak Periods

• Pallava Styles:

  • Kudaivara: Temples dug out of big hills.

  • Kartali: Temples built from top to bottom on a protruding rock.

  • Examples: Tiger Cave (yaali with 16 heads), Archuna Penance ($90\,\text{ft}$ rock masterpiece), Panchapandava Rathas.

• Chola Styles:

  • Thanjavur Great Temple ($1009\,\text{AD}$): Crowning masterpiece with meticulous scientific calculations.

  • Iradeeswarar (Tharasuram): Arranged like a chariot pulled by horses.

  • Thillai Natarajar (Chidambaram): Golden canopy (built by Parantaka Chola).

  • Gangai Konda Cholapuram: Features a $4\,\text{meter}$ high Shivalingam.

• Nayak Styles:

  • Paintings: Ramayana scenes in Alagar Temple and Meenakshi Amman Temple. Scenes depict the birth of Rama, Lakshmana, and Bharatha.

  • Madurai Meenakshi Amman: Built by Indran; features 8 towers, 2 vimanas (supported by 64 Sivaganams and 8 elephants), and the Mandapam with 1000 Pillars ($built in 1494 AD$).

  • Thirumalai Nayakkar Mahal ($1636\,\text{AD}$): Italian Saracenic design with $248\,\text{colossal pillars}$, $58\,\text{ft}$ high and $12\,\text{ft}$ wide. Use of "chunam" (lime mixed with egg white and jaggery).

Manufacturing Technology: Shipbuilding and Metallurgy

• Shipbuilding: Experts were known as "Kammiyar".

  • Dimensions: Largest vessels were $179\,\text{cubits}$ length, $22\,\text{cubits}$ breadth, and $17.3/5\,\text{cubits}$ height.

  • Navigation: Tides predicted as High (Kazhi) or Low. Ships used animal skins or fabric as sails.

  • Harbours: Front Harbour (outer estuary, for anchoring/unloading) and Big Harbour (inner estuary).

  • Decline: Indian shipbuilding perished with the arrival of the British and orders favoring the East India Company.

• Metallurgy:

  • Damascus Sword: High organic steel (Wood steel/Utsu) exported globally. Derived from "Uruku".

  • Beta Bronze: Cast with copper and silver (specifically $23\% \text{ silver}$) at very high temperatures.

  • Carbon Sintering: Ferrous alloys combined with carbon above melting points.

  • Iron Extraction: Use of blast furnaces and cast iron. Ancient Indian tools proved older than $1400\,\text{BC}$ by Carbon Dating.

• Iron Smelting (Smelteries):

  • Chennakuzhi Furnace: "Red pit" circular clay pots used in mills.

  • Herbal Use: High heat for melting was achieved using herbs rather than burning excessive wood.

Iron Extraction, Smelting, and Coinage

• Coinage Metals: Gold, silver, bronze, iron, and copper were used based on economic status.

• Pandyan Coins: Square copper coins; one side features a fish symbol, the other a horse standing to the left and tortoises in tanks.

• Chola Coins: Standing elephant on obverse, liner tiger on reverse; oblong square shaped copper.

• Chera Coins: Inscribed with a bow (family symbol); some feature the king's head.

• Specific Coins:

  • Malayaman: Features a river, three mountains, and a road.

  • Punch-marked Coins: Silver and copper; weighed approximately $52\,\text{grains}$.

  • Kushana: Gold coins with Greek language and deities on reverse.

• Minting Processes:

  • Sangam: Manual hammering on dies.

  • Medieval: Metal pre-shaped discs and screw press.

  • Modern: Hydraulic machines/stamps ($100 - 300\,\text{tons}$).

Beads Making, Precious Stones, and Glass Technology

• Beads Making (Kuyaththozhil):

  • Raw Materials: Gold, ivory, and "Calsidony" stone.

  • Gatherers: Poozhiyars from Mullai region; Guttuwars from the west coast.

  • Process: Heated in pots tightly sealed with Calcitney Stone to maintain uniform color.

  • Specialists: Vannakan Kuyinar (selectors), Thirumanikkuyinar (drillers), and Sirukarodar (polishers).

• Stone Beads (Carnelian):

  • Red colored stone heated to obtain color, then broken into flakes using deer antlers.

• Glass beads:

  • History dating back to $2500\,\text{BC}$ (Egypt) and $1500\,\text{BC}$ (mould dipping).

  • Types: Grobo (vertical moulds), Adoso (yellow/green dry core), Meteyi (horizontal), and Adeyun (handmade red beads).

• Flint/Terracotta Beads: Fingers used as tools to roll clay balls; holes made with broomsticks/toothpicks.

• Shell Beads: Oldest form of jewelry ($100,000\,\text{years old}$). Found in Skul, Israel.

• Bone Fragments: Used for making flutes ($42,000 - 43,000\,\text{years old}$), axes, and combs (ivory and cow horn).

Agriculture and Irrigation Technology: Dams and Water Bodies

• Water Structures: Ponds, puddles, dams, sluices, Ilangi, Gayam, Keni, Madu.

• Kallanai (Karikalan Dam): Over $2100\,\text{years old}$. Architecture uses interlocking huge rocks stacked on unfathomable sand; clay used as a binding layer between descending rocks.

• Lake vs. Pond:

  • Pond: Artificial/Natural quiet body, less than $5\,\text{hectares}$ (12 acres) and $5\,\text{meters}$ deep.

  • Lake: Larger, deeper, inland freshwater bodies.

• Irrigation Maintenance: Supervisors protected lake banks during midnight rainstorms.

• Technical Successions:

  • Enthals: First lake in a series carrying rainwater.

  • Thangals: Following lakes holding drained water.

  • Kalingals: Draining part to release excess water; boards placed to increase capacity by $2\,\text{feet}$.

• Sluice Mechanism:

  • Neerodi: Top hole for required water ($80\%$ flow).

  • Serodi: Bottom hole for muddy/sediment water ($20\%$ flow), preventing silting.

• Kumizhithoombu: Scientific Chola-era system (Rajarajan Thoombu) placed $200 - 300\,\text{ft}$ into the lake to remove silt alongside irrigation water.

Animal Care and Maritime Knowledge

• Animal Husbandry: Domestication began as early as $13,000\,\text{BC}$.

• Cattle Wealth: Used for agricultural tasks (ploughing, carrying hay) and heroic sports (Jallikattu).

• Order of Domestication: Starting with the dog, then sheep (nomads), cattle, and pigs ($8500 - 8000\,\text{BC}$).

• Horses/Camels: Domestication began around $3000\,\text{BC}$ (horses) and $1000\,\text{BC}$ (Arabian camels).

• Snow Wells (Dew Wells): Artificial lakes on mountains for livestock and cattle supply.

• Maritime Ocean Characteristics:

  • Salinity: $35\,g/l$ average; Sodium Chloride and Magnesium.

  • Thermal: Surface at $30\,^\circ C$, deep sea at $-2\,^\circ C$ to $5\,^\circ C$.

  • pH: Average $8.2$. Ocean acidification may drop this to $7.7$ by $2100$.

  • Photosynthesis Limit: Penetration only up to $200\,\text{meters}$.

Fishery, Pearls, and Oceanography

• Fishery Variety: Shark, Bryde's Whale, Prawn (red prawns), Njendu (crab), and Ippi (clam).

• Fishermen (Valaigner): Users of nets; "Thimilon" refers to those on fishing boats ($Thimil$).

• Pearl Formation:

  • Natural: Nacre secretion over parasites/sand. Formed over $5 - 20\,\text{years}$.

  • Artificial (Chinese method): Lead Buddha statues inserted into oyster shells; nacre encases them.

• Types: Highest spherical type is "Animuthu".

• History: Sho King ($2350\,\text{BC}$) mentions pearl rewards. Avaiyar sang of Pandyan pearl abundance.

• Trade: Musiri and Bandar ports were centers for pearl sales.

• Pearl Hunting: Permission from the king was required; one-tenth given to the king.

• Oceanography: Pacific (deepest/largest), Atlantic, Arctic (shallowest/smallest), and Indian Oceans.

Scientific Tamil and Tamil Computing

• Pioneers: V.S. Kulanthaisamy (Kulantha Model), P.V. Manicka Nayakar (technical terminology), and Dr. N. Subbu Reddiar.

• Need for Science Tamil: Exploring things in different dimensions and contexts; making medical and technical info accessible to the majority.

• Internet/Computer Tamil: Invention of the first Tamil computer, "Thiruvalluvar"; pioneer programs by Captain Sundararajan ($1987$).

• E-Books: Files categorized as e-pub, mobi, and pdf.

• Software Development:

  • Keyboard: Standard Tamil 99 typing mode.

  • Encoding: ASCII (English), ISCII (Indian), TSCII, Unicode ($1991$), and TACE (Tamil All Character Encoding).

  • Digital Library Concepts: Digital, Networking, Interactive, Multimedia, and Measurable.

• Word Corpus (Sorkuvai): Project to collate vocabulary from over $600\,\text{academic fields}$ into Tamil equivalents on the website sorkuvai.com.

Part-A: Questions & Discussion

• Q: How is the weaving industry taxed?

  • A: Profession Tax on weaving looms (Madi looms not taxed, Adai looms taxed half). Sales Tax known as Kulavari and road tax known as "Passage Tax".

• Q: What minerals are in clay?

  • A: $40\% \text{ Aluminium Oxide}$, $46\% \text{ Silicon Oxide}$, and $14\% \text{ Water}$.

• Q: What is Sirtil?

  • A: A "little house" or small mud house used for children at play.

• Q: What are the three levels of the Tamil Internet Education Corporation?

  • A: E-learning programs, E-library, and Development of Computerized Tamil.

• Q: What is a Kumizhithoombu?

  • A: A system that releases both irrigation water and silt/sediments from the lake floor simultaneously using pressure differentials.