Copy of Intro to Elex_SemiconBasics
Page 1: Introduction to Electronics
Electronics affects everyday life
Introduction to Electronics GGSCMT
Page 2: What is Electronics?
Definition: Study of the flow of charge (electron) through materials/devices like semiconductors, resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
Applications: Transmission of power and information.
Page 3: Branch of Engineering
Definition: Branch of engineering that designs efficient machinery and equipment for communication.
Examples:
Mobiles
TVs
Computers
Home Security Systems
Intelligence systems
Page 4: Present & Emerging Technologies
Technologies include:
Wireless communication
PLCC
Satellite communication
Internet Communication
Nanotechnology
Embedded Systems
Display Techniques
Robotics
Radar
Milk Fat Testing
Remote Sensing
Microwave Communication
Advanced Processing
Page 5: History of Electronics
William Gilbert (1544-1603): Authored De Magnete, researched magnetism and static electricity, distinguished between magnetism and static electricity.
Page 6: Leyden Jar
Developed by Pieter van Musschenbroek as the first capacitor.
Page 7: Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
Researched electricity, weather, and meteorology.
Defined positive and negative charges.
Had many inventions.
Page 8: Charles Coulomb (1736-1806)
Experimented in mechanical resistance.
Developed Coulomb's Law for electrostatic charges.
Page 9: Luigi Galvani (1737-1798)
Studied electrical effects on frogs.
Discovered animals were affected by electricity.
Page 10: Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)
Invented the battery, was notably involved in electrical experimentation.
Page 11: Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851)
Demonstrated electricity affects magnetism, initiating the study of electromagnetism.
Discovered aluminum.
Page 12: Andre Ampere (1775-1836)
French mathematician and physicist who invented the solenoid.
Studied effects of electrical currents.
Page 13: Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854)
Experimented with electrical circuits and discovered Ohm's Law, establishing the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance.
Page 14: Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
A pioneering experimenter in electricity and magnetism; demonstrated electromagnetic induction.
Page 15: James Prescott Joule (1818-1889)
Discovered the law of conservation of energy.
The unit of energy, joule, is named in his honor.
Page 16: Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
Known for work on the spectroscope; developed Kirchhoff's laws.
Page 17: Sir Charles Wheatstone (1806-1876)
Worked on the telegraph, photography, and electricity.
Developed the concertina (accordion) and Wheatstone Bridge applications.
Page 18: James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
Wrote the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873, explaining Faraday's work and predicting Hertz's contributions.
Page 19: Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-1894)
Demonstrated electromagnetic radiation predicted by Maxwell; demonstrated the photoelectric effect.
Page 20: Wilhelm Rontgen (1845-1923)
Discovered X-rays in 1895, quickly adopted in medical use, validated as electromagnetic in nature by Max von Laue.
Page 21: Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931)
Held 1,093 patents; inventions include phonograph and incandescent lamp.
Noted the "Edison effect" during lamp invention efforts.
Page 22: Edison 1882 Patent Lamp
Carbon filament lamp patent.
Page 23: Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)
Serbian-American inventor known for AC generators, distribution systems, and induction motors.
Feuded with Edison.
Page 24: Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937)
Patented radio telegraphy in 1896.
Transmitted signals across the Atlantic in 1901; Nobel Prize in Physics (1909).
Page 25: John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945)
Student of Maxwell who worked for Edison and Marconi.
Invented the Fleming Valve, the first electronic rectifier (diode) in 1904.
Page 26: The Fleming Valve
Diagram: Illustrates the early valve circuit components.
Page 27: Lee De Forest (1873-1961)
Held over 300 patents; invented the Audion tube in 1906 (first triode vacuum tube).
Utilized cascades of tubes to increase amplification in 1912.
Page 28: Lee De Forest's Triode 'Valve'
Depicted to showcase early triode technology.
Page 29: Walter Schottky (1886-1976)
Defined 'shot noise' in thermionic tubes and invented multiple grid vacuum tubes in 1919.
Page 30: Edwin Howard Armstrong (1890-1954)
Invented regenerative feedback, electronic oscillators, and the superheterodyne radio in 1917; patented FM radio in 1933.
Page 31: Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906-1971)
Invented an electronic TV system in 1922 at age 14, patented his TV system in 1927; RCA litigation settled in 1939.
Page 32: William Bradford Shockley (1910-1989)
Worked with Brattain and Bardeen on the junction transistor invention; shared Nobel Prize in 1956.
Page 33: Walter H. Brattain (1902-1987)
Worked on radar and silicon detectors; part of the junction transistor invention.
Shared Nobel Prize in 1956.
Page 34: John Bardeen (1908-1991)
Developed quantum surface state theories leading to the junction transistor invention; shared Nobel Prize in 1956.
Page 35: Early History of IC Devices
1940s: Vacuum tubes for radios, TVs, and computers were expensive, bulky, and energy-inefficient.
1950s: Invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) at Bell Labs led to more stable and cost-effective alternatives.
ENIAC: Recognized as the first digital computer.
Page 36: Discrete Electronic Circuits
1954: Texas Instruments produced the first commercial silicon transistor, termed “discretes.”
Utilized in amplifiers and electronic products.
Page 37: Integrated Circuit (IC)
Definition: IC consists of interconnected electronic components in a single semiconductor chip.
Robert Noyce (1959): Demonstrated a planar IC in silicon.
Jack S. Kilby (1958): Fabricated simple ICs in germanium.
Page 38: Atomic Structure
The atom is the smallest particle retaining element characteristics.
Parts:
Electron
Nucleus (Proton & Neutron)
Page 39: Atomic Particles
Characteristics of an atom include protons, neutrons, and electrons arranged by atomic number.
Page 40: Periodic Table
Arrangement: Elements ordered by atomic number, defining the number of protons/electrons in a neutral atom.
Page 41: Electron Shells
Electron Orbit: Discrete distances from the nucleus.
Electron Shell: Energy bands formed by groups of electron orbits.
Page 42: Valence Electrons
Valence Shell: Outermost shell of an atom.
Valence Electrons: Highest energy electrons, loosely bound to the atom.
Page 43: Ionization Process
Definition: Loss of valence electron leading to different ion states.
Positive Ion: More protons than electrons.
Negative Ion: More electrons than protons.
Free Electron: Escaped valence electron with sufficient energy.
Page 44: Electron Count in Shells
Formula: Electrons in a shell can be calculated based on quantum mechanics.
Page 45: Electrical Classification of Materials
Conductors: Less than four valence electrons, easily conducting current.
Insulators: More than four valence electrons, do not conduct current at normal conditions.
Semiconductors: Exactly four valence electrons.
Page 46: Core of an Atom
Describes the nucleus and inner orbits of an atom, particularly of carbon.
Page 47: Conductors vs. Insulators
Conductors: Allow current flow.
Insulators: Resist current flow.
Semiconductors: Intermediate conductivity.
Page 48: Energy States
The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the higher the energy state, leading to energy gaps.
Page 49: Energy Bands
Valence Band: Energy level in the valence shell.
Conduction Band: Energy required to remove an electron from the valence shell.
Page 50: Valence and Conduction Bands of Materials
Summary of energy levels in conductors, semiconductors, and insulators with different band gaps.
Page 51: Comparison of Silicon and Copper Atoms
Differences in atomic structure and properties.
Page 52: Silicon and Germanium
Key semiconductors widely used in electronic devices.
Page 53: Covalent Bonding
Definition: Bonding formed through sharing of electrons, creating a crystal lattice.
Page 54: Covalent Bonding Visual
Illustration depicting covalent bonding in silicon atoms.
Page 55: Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors without impurities are intrinsic.
Page 56: Silicon Crystal Structure
Visualization of silicon crystal structure and bonding.
Page 57: Conductivity in Semiconductors
Semiconductors can either conduct or stop current flow based on state conditions.
Page 58: Silicon Atom at 0 Kelvin
Energy diagram showing unexcited state of silicon at absolute zero.
Page 59: Silicon Atom at Room Temperature
Diagram depicting energy/heat related effects at room temperature.
Page 60: Electron-Hole Pairs
Concept of holes left due to ionization and the resulting electron-hole pair formation.
Page 61: Silicon at Room Temperature
Explanation of continuous generation of free electron-hole pairs.
Page 62: Temperature Effects on Semiconductors
Increasing temperature substantially raises free electron count in materials with negative temperature coefficients.
Page 63: Electron Current
Describes current flow due to applied voltage attracting electrons in a silicon crystal.
Page 64: Hole Current
Current flow due to movement of electrons into nearby holes.
Page 65: Extrinsic Semiconductors
N-type and P-type classifications based on doping processes.
Page 66: Doping Process
Definition: Adding impurities to alter the conduction properties of semiconductors.
Page 67: Types of Impurities
Pentavalent Impurity: Donor atoms creating free electrons.
Trivalent Impurity: Acceptor atoms creating holes.
Page 68: N-type Semiconductor
Formation process and characteristics of n-type extrinsic semiconductors.
Page 69: N-type Semiconductor Characteristics
Majority charge carriers are free electrons resulting from doping.
Page 70: P-type Semiconductor
Formation process and characteristics of p-type extrinsic semiconductors.
Page 71: P-type Semiconductor Characteristics
Majority charge carriers are holes due to doping.
Page 72: Majority and Minority Carriers
Definition of majority and minority carriers in n-type and p-type materials.
Page 73: Diode Characteristics
Definition: Device conducting current in one direction only.
Page 74: Diode Construction
A diode forms with a PN junction through doping methods.
Page 75: Depletion Region
Formation and characteristics of the depletion region near a PN junction.
Page 76: Barrier Potential
Definition of threshold voltage required for current to push electrons across the depletion region.
Page 77: Energy Changes at PN Junction
Explanation of energy level changes due to diffusion after forming the PN junction.
Page 78: Equilibrium of the PN Junction
Energy gradient formation across the depletion region acting as an energy hill.
Page 79: Biasing Diodes
Use of DC voltage to establish operating conditions in semiconductor devices.
Page 80: Forward Bias Explanation
Allows current flow through the PN junction by proper terminal connections.
Page 81: Forward Bias Currents
Majority and minority carriers defined for both n region and p region during forward bias.
Page 82: Effects on Depletion Region
Flow of free electrons and holes results in a narrowing of the depletion region during forward bias.
Page 83: Energy Loss in PN Junction
Describes energy loss resulting in voltage drop across the PN junction during forward bias.
Page 84: Reverse Bias Condition
Condition to prevent current flow through the diode.
Negative voltage connection influences depletion region.
Page 85: Reverse Bias Effects
Describes widening of the depletion region and its implications on current flow in reverse bias.
Page 86: Reverse Currents Definition
Identification of saturation current caused by minority carriers.
Page 87: Surface Leakage Current
Small reverse current due to surface impurities; proportional to reverse voltage.
Page 88: Zener Effect
Reverse bias exceeding certain thresholds creates significant electric fields affecting charge carriers.
Page 89: Avalanche Effect
Phenomenon under high reverse bias focusing on rapid increase in reverse current through electron-hole pair production.
Page 90: Forward Bias Diode Current Formula
Presentation of the diode current computation formula with variable descriptions.
Page 91: Diode Structure and Symbol
Symbols representing the anode and cathode of a diode, including current direction.
Page 92: Diode Characterization Graph
Overview of diode behavior across forward-bias and reverse-bias conditions.
Page 93: Zener Region Overview
Discussion about the maximum reverse-bias potential and maximum voltage ratings for diodes.
Page 94: Silicon vs. Germanium Diodes
Comparison of specifications, including PIV ratings, temperature ranges, and threshold voltages.
Page 95: Effects of Temperature on Diodes
Observations on how temperature changes influence diode functionality, nature of currents, and voltage parameters.
Page 96: Resistance Levels in Semiconductors
Basic definition of resistance and current influence across devices.
Page 97: Quiescent Point in DC Applications
Explanation of the significance and stability of the Q-point in diode applications.
Page 98: DC or Static Resistance Measurement
Presentation of resistance calculations in terms of voltage and current conditions.
Page 99: AC or Dynamic Resistance Overview
Description of dynamic resistance and its implications in circuit response.
Page 100: AC or Dynamic Resistance Calculation
Formulas used to determine dynamic resistance and characteristics.
Page 101: Average AC Resistance Measurement
Graphical representation of average AC resistance derivation across a specified voltage range.
Page 102: Diode Equivalent Circuit
Presentation of an equivalent circuit model representing diode functionality.
Page 103: Ideal Diode Characteristics
Characteristics of ideal diodes under forward and reverse biases.
Page 104: Piecewise-Linear Model Summary
Depiction of behavior within a given operating region of piecewise-linear diodes.
Page 105: Diode Specification Overview
Representation of technical specifications as part of the diode identification process.
Page 106: Diode Testing Techniques
Description of methods to assess if a diode functions correctly, including various tools and techniques.
Page 107: Utilizing a Curve Tracer for Testing
Explanation of using a curve tracer for diode testing with sample setups.
Page 108: Testing with a VOM
Detailed instructions on how to test diode functionality using a volt-ohm meter.
Page 109: Testing with DMM
Specific instructions on using a digital multimeter for accurate testing of diode performance.
Page 110: Displaying Testing Results
Illustration of expected readings on a DMM during various diode test conditions.
Page 111: Typical Testing Results
Expected outcomes showcased based on DMM readings for functional/non-functional diodes.
Page 112: Final Notes on Diode Specification Sheets
Insights on the importance of familiarity with specification sheets and parameter impacts on applications.
Page 113: Transition Capacitance Overview
Differentiation of capacitance types at transition and diffusion junctions in diodes.
Page 114: Capacitance Levels Discussion
Explanation on capacitance variations as depletion layers change.
Page 115: Reverse Bias Capacitance Explanation
Insight into how capacitance is affected during reverse bias conditions and implications for device behavior.
Page 116: Summary on Capacitance Levels
Comprehensive review of capacitance effects across different semiconductor states.