History of the Conquest and the Independence of Mexico

The Spanish Conquest and the Foundation of Villa Rica de la Vera-Cruz

The conquest of Mexico began to take a definitive shape in the year $1519$. Upon arriving at the coast, Hernán Cortés received various gifts from the Mexica people. These tributes and the high quality of the materials presented influenced Cortés’s decision to advance toward Mexico-Tenochtitlan with the primary objective of establishing contact with Moctezuma. This decision was a significant act of defiance against Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, who had only authorized Cortés to explore the coastal regions and not to venture further inland. To legitimize his actions and transition into the role of a conqueror, Cortés and his men founded the city of Villa Rica de la Vera-Cruz in July $1519$. In doing so, Cortés named himself the "Governor and Captain General" of the territories discovered and to be conquered.

Establishing strategic alliances was the cornerstone of Cortés’s strategy. The first major collaboration occurred when the Castilians met with the Lord of Cempoallan in Cempoala, Veracruz. During this encounter, the Spaniards realized the heavy submission the local people faced under Mexica rule and negotiated a pact to join forces against them. This alliance was conditional; the Totonacos agreed to fight alongside the Spaniards in exchange for the return of their sovereign territories. As part of the agreement, the Totonacos were also required to convert to what the Spaniards termed the "true religion."

Strategic Alliances and the Multi-Dimensional Nature of Conquest

Following the alliance with the Totonacos, Cortés continued his march toward Tenochtitlan and encountered the Tlaxcaltecas. Initially, this meeting resulted in a hard-fought battle that lasted for three days. However, the conflict concluded with the defeat of the Tlaxcaltecas and their subsequent decision to form an alliance with the Spaniards. It is crucial to recognize that the conquest was not a binary struggle between Castilians and Mexicas; it involved a diverse array of actors and complex political motivations.

The conquest itself was not limited to a single military or bellicose event. It was a multifaceted process consisting of a military conquest, a material conquest involving the seizure of resources and land, and a spiritual conquest aimed at replacing indigenous belief systems. This transformation reached its peak with the fall of Mexico-Tenochtitlan on the $13$ of August $1521$. The underlying philosophy of the Spanish mission was that to truly take ownership of a people, it was necessary to transform them from their very roots.

Social Organization and Ethnic Stratification in the Viceroyalty

The social structure of New Spain was heavily influenced by various migration patterns and strict ethnic hierarchies. Initially, the first inhabitants were restricted to those coming from Castile. However, significant Arabic influences were introduced through these Castilian settlers, impacting ideas, language, art, and gastronomy. As the colony grew, Asian migrations reached areas such as Veracruz, Puebla, Acapulco, Sonora, and Chihuahua, while African migrations were concentrated in Veracruz, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. This convergence led to syncretism—a profound fusion of cultures affecting language, religion, art, and daily life.

Social division in New Spain was fundamentally based on ethnic origin, known as "calidad" (quality). Privileges were sharply defined; Spaniards occupied administrative roles and were permitted to exploit the labor of indigenous and Black populations without pay. Indigenous peoples were subjected to forced labor and were legally required to pay tributes. Those of African descent were typically enslaved by the peninsular Spaniards. As racial mixing intensified through mestizaje, new social groups emerged. The hierarchical perception of this society is best understood through "Cuadros de Castas," which illustrate the social gradations of the time.

The Catholic Church and the Counter-Reformation Response

During the period of the Viceroyalty, the Catholic Church faced internal challenges and external criticism due to the Protestant Reformation led by Martin Luther in $1517$. Luther criticized the corruption of various Popes and the sale of indulgences, which were used to grant salvation. He argued that the essence of Christianity lay in direct communication between the individual and God, asserting that salvation is a gift from God through faith rather than works. In response, the Catholic Church held the Council of Trent from $1545$ to $1563$, marking the beginning of the Counter-Reformation. This movement aimed to define Catholic doctrine clearly, reform ecclesiastical abuses, and condemn the Protestant Reformation as heresy.

In New Spain, the Church became the central regulator of spiritual and community life. Beyond religious rites, it structured the entire social calendar and modified daily activities, replacing indigenous codices with prayers and sermons. Cofradías, which were lay groupings dedicated to charitable works, were established under the promotion of religious authorities to maintain the cult of specific religious figures. Evangelization, the act of preaching the word of God, was carried out by mendicant orders who arrived in waves: the Franciscans in $1524$ at the port of Veracruz, the Dominicans in $1526$, and the Augustinians around $1533$.

Clerical Structure and Religious Education

The clergy in the Viceroyalty was divided into two main branches: the Regular Clergy and the Secular Clergy. The Regular Clergy consisted of mendicant orders like the Franciscans who followed their own internal rules, focused on evangelization, and founded the first convents. In contrast, the Secular Clergy comprised priests who worked in parishes, obispados (bishoprics), and arzobispados (archbishoprics) without belonging to an order; they controlled the administration of sacraments, tithes, and primicias (first fruits).

Education in the $16$th century was largely under the control of these mendicant orders. They established significant educational institutions, such as the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in $1563$ for the indigenous elite and the Colegio de San Juan de Letrán, which was specifically designed for mestizos. These schools were instrumental in the spiritual and cultural integration of the population into the Spanish colonial framework.

Enlightenment and External Antecedents to Independence

The movement toward Mexican Independence was heavily influenced by the Enlightenment, a historical and philosophical stage rooted in Humanism. Several key developments paved the way for the Enlightenment, including the Renaissance of the $15$th and $16$th centuries, the Protestant Reformation, the Scientific Revolution of the $17$th century, and the rise of Nationalism and Empiricism. Philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire advocated for the use of reason to explain the universe and critiqued the Old Regime's privileges and absolute power.

The Enlightenment sought the development of science and the spread of education to all spheres of society, as exemplified by the creation of the Encyclopedia. Politically, it championed the division of power into Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branches to prevent abuses, as well as the concepts of popular sovereignty and equality of rights. These ideas circulated rapidly due to the invention of the printing press and eventually reached New Spain, inspiring the criollo class to reconsider their relationship with the Spanish Crown.

Global Impact: The Thirteen Colonies and Napoleon

The successful transition of Enlightenment thought into political reality was first seen in the Thirteen Colonies of North America. Governed by the British under a constitutional parliamentary monarchy, these colonies were pushed toward independence (declared on July $4$, $1776$) when the British Crown increased taxes and export tariffs to fund commercial expansion. With assistance from France and Spain, the United States of America gained independence in $1783$ via the Treaty of Paris. This success encouraged the Criollos in New Spain to initiate their own process, especially as France became impoverished from supporting the American colonies and began raising taxes at home.

By the late $18$th and early $19$th centuries, France underwent its own revolution against the monarchy, eventually leading to the rise of the French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte. Seeking to expand his empire and weaken the British, Napoleon requested permission from Spain to cross their territory to attack Portugal, which was assisting British commerce. This situation culminated in the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in $1808$, creating a power vacuum that directly triggered the independence movements in the Americas.

The Four Stages of the Mexican War of Independence

The struggle for independence in Mexico is divided into four distinct phases. The first, the Initiation ($1810$-$1811$), began with the Grito de Dolores. This was a social outburst led by Miguel Hidalgo after Ignacio Allende alerted him that their conspiracy had been discovered. Hidalgo summoned the people by ringing the church bells and delivered a discourse emphasizing the suffering of the population. His demands included the abolition of slavery, the suspension of tributes to the Crown, and the return of communal lands to indigenous people. Although disorganized, his army grew from $600$ to $80,000$ people, inclusive of all ethnic groups. This stage ended with the execution of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez in $1811$, and their heads were displayed at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas.

The second stage, Organization ($1811$-$1815$), was led by José María Morelos, who took command due to his constant military victories in the south alongside the Galeana brothers. Within a year, Morelos defeated three royalist leaders—Paris, Cosio, and Fuentes—capturing much of the state of Guerrero. Following his death, the movement entered the third stage, Resistance ($1815$-$1821$), characterized by small guerrilla groups without a single major leader. Finally, the Consummation ($1821$) occurred when Vicente Guerrero and Agustín de Iturbide united through the Plan de Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba, forming the Ejército Trigarante to secure independence.

The Crisis in Spain and the Constitution of Cádiz

While the insurgency was active in New Spain, the Iberian Peninsula was in turmoil. Napoleon had forced the abdication of Carlos IV and installed a French ruler, which led to a patriotic uprising known as the Spanish War of Independence ($1808$-$1814$). Provincial Juntas were formed to fight for the restoration of Fernando VII, known as "The Desired." Major battles occurred throughout the territory, with victories in Salamanca and Cádiz. The victory in Cádiz allowed for the assembly of the Cortes of Cádiz, which promulgated a new Constitution on March $19$, $1812$.

The Constitution of Cádiz was based on liberal Enlightenment ideals, proposing a democratic model sustained by individual rights, national sovereignty, the division of powers, and political freedom of the press. It aimed to abolish the Inquisition, end the unfair distribution of land, and promote freedom of industry and popular participation in government. Although Fernando VII was restored to the throne in $1814$ with the support of General Francisco Eguía and attempted to abolish these reforms and return to the old order, the principles of the Cádiz Constitution served as a fundamental blueprint for many Hispanic nations in their transition to independent states.