AP Comparative Government & Politics - Study Guide

Comparative Government

Comparative Politics vs. International Relations:

• Comparative Politics: Comparison/study of domestic politics across countries.
• International Relations: Relations between countries.

Institutions:

• Organizations or activities that are self-perpetuating.
• Lays out the structures and rules in which we live.

Politics:

• Struggle for power in making decisions for larger groups.

Power:

• Ability to influence others/who gets what, in what ways.

Comparative Method:

• A way to compare cases and draw conclusions.

  • Inductive Reasoning:

    • Studying a case to generate a hypothesis. Evidence → Hypothesis.
    • Ex. We can hypothesize the relationship between nationalism and authoritarianism after studying North Korea.

  • Deductive Reasoning:

    • Starting with a hypothesis to test cases. Hypothesis → Evidence.
    • Ex. We start with our hypothesis about nationalism and test it on multiple countries.

Correlation:

• Association between factors and variables.

Causal Relationship:

• Cause and Effect.

Difficulties in research:

1. Difficulty controlling the variables

   • Variables can be left unaccounted for

2. Multicausality

   • Variables are interconnected and interact

3. Limits to our information and information gathering

   • Few number of cases that we can study

4. Information is not easy to gather

   • A researcher wants to study authoritarianism in China and Russia - They should ideally be able to speak both languages
   • Single-Case Studies are effective, but they may be too narrow

5. Focus is likely to be limited to a single geographic area

   • A researcher that studies Cuba is likely to study other Latin American countries rather than Asia.
   • Area Studies is distributed unevenly across the world. Ex. Much focus has been put on Western Europe despite the growing influence of Asia.

6. Selection Bias makes it difficult to control variables

   • Researchers choose which countries to study, depending on what language they know/what countries they are interested in.
   • We should focus on concentrating on the cause of an issue, rather than the effects of it.

7. Endogeneity

   • Distinguishing cause and effect
   • Even if we prove casual relationship, it is difficult to determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect

Making a Science out of Comparative Politics

• Aristotle took a philosophical approach to politics, distinguishing between despotic (tyrannical) and “proper” regimes.

  • The philosophical approach continued for 1800 years, where people discussed ideals, rather than how politics was actually conducted.

• Machiavelli is cited as the first modern political scientist because of his empirical approach to politics.

  • Followed by Rousseau, Montesquieu, Marx, and Weber, politics began to focus on political journalism - largely descriptive rather than comparative

• The two World Wars and the Cold War marked a turning point

  • The Soviet Union’s revolutionary ideologies made it necessary, and issues arising due to technological advancement could only be countered with the scientific method.

• Modernization Theory (1950~)

  • Stated that as societies developed, they would become capitalist-democracy states.
  • Failed, as more countries were replaced by authoritarianism

• Behavioral Revolution (1950~)

  • Focus shifted from political institutions to political behavior, and it hoped to explain and predict political activity
  • Promoted large-scale research

Research Methods

• Qualitative Methods: Typically inductive, and investigations are deep.
• Quantitative Methods: Typically deductive, and uses statistical analysis and theories, often drawn from economics.

Theory

• Rational Choice/Game Theory: Used to study the rules and preferences of humans, and can lead to explanation and prediction.

  • Associated with quantitative methods

• Mixed-method Research: Uses both quantitative and qualitative research

Political Institutions

• An indispensable part of society that is not easily changed

  • Ex. In some countries Democracy, because it is so important that it influences how people define themselves. However, it is not so in other countries where democracy’s presence is not as secure

• Allow us to understand certain people’s values, and helps us predict political behavior

• Can be stronger or weaker, rise or decline in power, over time

  • Formal Institutions: Based on official rules

    • Army, police, taxation, electoral system

  • Informal Institutions: Unofficial, but just as powerful

Freedom and Inequality

• Freedom: Ability to act independently without fear or restriction
• Equality: Material standard of living shared by individuals
• One may have to be reduced for the other, though they can also reinforce each other - material security can secure political rights, etc.

Institutions in Action

• Macro-level Approach: Looks at how biological forces interact with the social environment - biology can shape people’s views on some issues

• Micro-level Approach: Focuses on the science of cognition and errors such as overconfidence

• In weak states, they are unable to maintain institutions like laws, and so legitimacy erodes. This can cause a collapse in democracy.

  • Ex. Pakistan power theft

Country

• The shorthand for the combined political entities below:

  • State: The organization that has a monopoly of force, and sovereignty over its people

    • Sovereignty: The ability to carry out actions and policies
    • Requires physical power in order to protect itself from external factors or internal rebellions
    • Serves as an institution that generates/executes policy

  • Regime: The rules/norms of politics, that embodies long term goals that guide the state, regarding freedom, equality, and power.

    • At the most basic level, it is categorized as either democratic or authoritarian.
    • In nondemocratic states, people may use regime to refer to the leader.
    • Changing it is difficult, because it is a deeply embedded institution

  • Government: The leadership that runs the state

    • To change the autonomy of the state, it must confront the existing regime.

      • → It is weakly institutionalized, and replaceable

    • Generates short term goals

Origins of Political Organization

• Hobbes vs. Rousseau - Both emphasized a social contract between the rulers/ruled

  • Thomas Hobbes - Believed that humans voluntarily submitted to political authority to overcome anarchy
  • Rousseau - Believed that humans were inherently compassionate, but the rise of the state institutionalized inequality

• ↑↑↑Apparently neither is correct. In primordial individualism, pre-state societies were violent. States emerged out of this violence and allowed for more effective defense.

  • Organizations began to emerge 8000 years ago in the Middle East
  • 9th~13th century systems based their economic relations on agricultural production, and they did not have defined borders

The Rise of the Modern State - in Europe!

• Europe was dominated by the Roman Empire, which tied together millions of people. However, it declined, and Europe reverted to anarchy, entering the Dark Ages.

• Through its fragmentation, new political organizations began to develop, and internal competition within them (Warlords who staked out turf) sparked evolution.

• Europe is also close to Asia and the Middle East, and so they were able to benefit from technology, plants, and animals.

  • China was sophisticated at the time, but because of its absence of internal geographic boundaries and absence of rivals to drive competition, it did not rule the world.
  • Europe’s weakness was its ethnic and linguistic fragmentation.

• Advantages of the European modern state:

  1. States encouraged economic development

     • Before this, warlords could tax labourers - this caused a lack of incentive. Rulers who created laws respected property rights and individual profit.

  2. States encouraged technological innovation

     • People realized that new technologies stimulate economic growth. They could trade it, and used them as well.

  3. Domestic Stability increased trade and commerce and developed infrastructure

  4. People could travel more freely, encouraging interaction and a shared identity.

     • The state printed documents, etc. and standardized language.

• After the Thirty Years War, the Treaty of Westphalia was formed and removed the authority of the pope - allowing states to direct religion within their own territory

• By the 19th century, Africa was divided up among European states.

• In the 20th century, although people threw off European domination, they adopted their political organization.

Legitimacy

• Something/someone is accepted as right by the public.

• Does not require force to make people obey, and a legitimate state does not rely on coercion to retain their power, rather citizens give them consent to ask things of us

• Critical component of stateness

• Does not depend on freedom/equality, and an unfree/unequal state can be legitimate.

• Max Weber sorts legitimacy into three forms.

  • Traditional Legitimacy: Legitimacy built on history and continuity.

    • Often embodies myths, legends, rituals, and ceremonies.
    • Ex. A long standing monarchy (Queen Elizabeth II)

  • Charismatic Legitimacy: Based on the person’s power of ideas or beliefs

    • Often carried out by people who can move and persuade the public
    • Can be secular
    • Ex. Adolf Hitler (Articulated need for war/genocide), Ghandi, Mandela, Kim Jong-Un
    • Ex. Jesus and Muhammad → power of their ideas
    • Not institutionalized, and dies with the person who possesses legitimacy.
    • “Routinization of Charisma”: Institutionalization like rituals/values that embody the spirit of the charismatic leader.

  • Rational-Legal Legitimacy: Based on a system of laws/procedures presumed to be rational

    • People follow the decisions of leaders because the leaders are following the existing rules.
    • Leaders lose authority when they leave office, because it does not reside with individuals
    • Modern states are based on rational-legal.
    • People obey the leader of election outcomes no matter wh o is elected.
    • Most states are mixed (ex. UK, Japan, Saudi Arabia -- Traditional)
    • Even the US Constitution is traditional legitimacy.

Centralization/Decentralization

• Centralization is associated w/ equality

• Decentralization is associated w/ freedom

• Federalism: Powers like taxation and lawmaking are developed to regional bodies to control specific territories within a country.

  • Checks over centralization, which can be unrepresentative and a threat to democracy

  • More individual freedom (government has less power)

  • Less efficiency, more division/conflict

  • Power dispersion : decentralization

  • Ex. United States

  • Asymmetric Federalism: Power is divided unevenly between regional bodies

    • Common in countries with ethnic divisions
    • Ex. Quebec - Gets to set tax rates (only state in Canada)
    • In relation to Symmetric Federalism

• Unitary States: Political power is concentrated at a national level.

  • Argues that local interest can be represented without regional politics
  • Territorial divisions have little political power (ex. China, Japan, France)
  • Power dispersion : Centralized, collective equality, less freedom

Devolution

• Currently states are leaning towards decentralization

  • Increases state legitimacy, because political power is closer to the people
  • Resolves ethnic/religious differences
  • Ex. Iraq and Nepal both eliminated their unitary states to become federalist.

Power, Autonomy, Capacity

• Strong States: Able to fulfill tasks like defending territory, enforcing rights, collecting tax

• Weak States: Unable to manage economy, etc.

  • Often not well institutionalized and lack authority/legitimacy
  • Can become a Fractured State or a Failed State
  • Ex. Afghanistan
  • Piracy in Somalia shows a failed state, but the pirates rely on functioning market = not a complete anarchy

• Capacity: Ability of the state to use power to carry out basic tasks to provide security

  • High Capacity: Can enact policies and ensure stability
  • Low Capacity: Unable to do these things

• Autonomy: Ability of the state to use power independently of the public

  • High Autonomy: Acts on behalf of the public, pursuing what's best for the country, regardless of public opinion
  • Low Autonomy: Acts by the decisions of individuals, groups, and other states and will be less able to disobey public will.
  • Ex. US, Canada

Power (within country)

• Legitimacy —> consent, right and proper

  • We view laws as legitimate even when we don’t think they are right
  • Different authorities have different levels of legitimacy
  • Make and enforce laws
  • China invaded by Japan - legitimacy died

AP DAILY 1.3 Authoritarian vs. Democratic

Ethnic Identity

• Institutions that bind people through culture. They’re born into people.

  • Ascription - The assigning of a particular quality at birth.

    • Ex. Language, appearance, history, customs, religion

  • Exists when people acknowledge that they belong to a distinct group.

National Identity

• Institutions that bind people through common political aspirations

  • Sovereignty, self-government are important; inherently political

  • Independence movements reflect a group’s aspiration towards freedom

  • Often develops from ethnic groups

    • Ex. An ethnic group may rebel against current systems because they feel their members lack freedom/equality.

  • Ethnic identity may or may not influence nationalism

    • Ex. South Africans have many ethnic groups, but still have pride in their nation

  • Nationalism is assumed to be made through ethnic identity, but that might not be true because America has no ethnic group yet is nationalistic.

    • In America, they have a constitution, flag, anthem, etc.

Citizenship and Patriotism

• Citizenship: Defined by relation to a state rather than other people

• Patriotism: Pride in one’s state

  • Ex. Palestinians don’t have a state but have a high degree of national identity, so patriotism is not the right word

• An ethnic minority’s nationalism may be restricted to the aspirations of its own group only, and so there may be a low degree of patriotism.

• A short conclusion: Ethnic identity is built on social characteristics unique to a group of people, nationalism is built on political aspirations, but does not always lead to patriotism.

History of these things

• Ethnic and national identity was developed in Europe in the 18th century, with the development of the modern state.

  • Commerce occurred around the capitals, fostering homogeneity
  • Languages and dialects merged, and were further standardized through government education and documentation.
  • Religious practices were supported by the state.
  • Local identities were eradicated.

• Because people now identify with the institutions they shared with others through culture, etc., ethnic identity developed.

• Through a single ethnic identity, state leaders supplied the demands of more people

• National + Ethnic Identity combined asserts that the state is legitimate because it defends national values. Nationalism generated mass armies and tax revenues.

• Nation-State: A sovereign state that encompasses a nation

  • By the 19th century, Multiethnic nations were replaced by Nation States.

• Idea of social contract that people and state should serve equal obligations→ Citizenship

Ethnic, National Conflicts

• Ethnic Conflict: For greater control over existing political institutions

  • Ex. Afghanistan, groups trying to gain power

• National Conflict: To gain sovereignty

  • Ex. American Revolution, gaining independence from Great Britain.

• Primary causes:

  • Societal: Ethnic heterogeneity - how many/integrated ethnic groups are.

    • Ex. Nigeria: great heterogeneity, more conflicts

  • Economic: Struggle for resources

    • Ex. Congo: Battles over gold, diamonds

  • Political: Degree of autonomy, capacity

    • Ex. Africa: Borders drawn by colonizers that do not conform to ethnic divisions, where one ethnicity rules over the minority, benefitting disproportionately

Political Culture

• Culture: The content of the institutions that help define a society

• Political Culture: The society’s norms for political activity

  • In the past, economy/politics were explained in terms of religion and culture

    • However, this was rejected because there was no way to compare cultures and religion lost most of its power, and states became secular.
    • Now, it has resurfaced but there is ongoing debate.

  • Inglehart distinguishes differences between societies World Value Survey

    • They move in the same direction as their culturally similar counterparts

Political Attitudes and Political Ideology

• Political Attitudes: Regard necessary pace/size of political change

  • It regards a single country, as current systems are different in each country, and “change” depends on the context.

    • Ex. The USA is democratic, and radicals would want authoritarianism. China is nondemocratic, and radicals would want democracy.

  • Radicals: Believe in dramatic change.

    • Wants change in entire political structure
    • May be inclined to use violence

  • Liberals: Believe in much change.

    • Favors evolutionary change, but without an overthrow of existing systems
    • Believe that existing institutions can be instruments of positive change.

  • Conservatives: Believe that change is unnecessary, and may remove legitimacy

    • Thinks existing systems are key to providing needs
    • Questions whether problems pointed out by left wings can ever be solved.

  • Reactionaries: See change as unacceptable, and desires a previous regime

    • May seek return to an envisioned past ideal

  • Radicals and Reactionaries have much in common, and Liberals and Conservatives have much in common

    • Rather than a single line, the spectrum should be seen as a circle.
    • Ex. Radicals and Reactionaries use violence

• Political Ideology: Basic individual values about goals of politics (freedom, equality)

  • Concerned with the ideal relationship between freedom and equality

  • More universal, since people assume there is one ideal way to achieve goals

  • Ideologies were developed along with the secular state, so it served as an alternative to traditional values like religion.

  • Liberalism: High priority on freedom.

    • Requires a state with low autonomy and capacity, so the public can rule.
    • The less state intervention, the more human prosperity
    • Liberal Democracy: Political, social, and economic liberties.

  • Communism: Rejects the idea that freedom will give prosperity to the majority, and that a small group of powerful people will control others.

    • They see liberal democracy as being for the rich, by the rich,
    • Argues that an autonomous and capable state controls the resources and restricts individual rights.

  • Social Democracy: Pulls from both communism and liberalism.

    • Accepts private ownership and market forces, while maintaining economic equality through policies like job protection and social benefits
    • Requires a state with strong autonomy and capacity

  • Fascism: Rejects both freedom and equality, and instead values a hierarchy

    • Fascism does not see potential in individuals, and sees society as a single body. State autonomy and capacity are important. Ex. nazi

  • Anarchism: Rejects the idea of a state.

    • Like communism, it sees that private property leads to inequality, but doesn’t think the state can fix it. Like liberalism, it sees the state as a threat to freedom and equality.

Religion and Fundamentalism

• The secular state and political ideologies emerged as alternatives to religion. Both discuss people’s behavior to freedom and equality and about human nature.

• In the premodern world, religion played a role in public affairs, but the emergence of ideology led to the “privatization of religion.”

• Fundamentalism: Tries to unite religion with the state and make it sovereign

  • It is NOT premodern: In premodern times religion was important in public life, and the ideologies replaced their role. However, fundamentalism aims to make religion the center of political ideology, which is different.
  • Based on the failures of ideology
  • Can be both radical and reactionary, but not always violent
  • There are many forms/types of fundamentalism, even within a religion.

Political Economy

• How the relationship between politics and economics shapes the balance between freedom and equality.

  • Ex. Distribution of wealth, mercantilism, etc.

Components of Political Economy

• Markets and Property

  • Markets: Interactions between supply and demand, which allocate resources

    • Can be decentralized, as millions of people balance demand and supply.
    • Competition and innovation occurs.
    • The government intervenes by creating minimum wage, or making the selling of certain things illegal.

  • Property: Ownership of goods and services

    • Property rights can accompany ownership, and are regulated by the state.
    • Intellectual Property: Ownership of intangible things

  • The role states play in regulating markets and enforcing property rights depends on the state.

Public Goods

• Public Goods: Goods that cannot belong to one individual/organization and are secured by the state.

• Public Goods generate equality, while private goods are linked to freedom.

• Some countries make health and education public

  • Changes how much freedom/equality people have.

Social Expenditures

• State’s provision of public benefits like education/healthcare. Aka Welfare State

• Arguments for it:

  • It’s really expensive, especially when many people are unemployed or aging.
  • Unemployment benefits could discourage people from working
  • Immigrants rely on it more than the citizens

• Although many social expenditures are for people who need the most care such as the unemployed and disabled, others are widely used such as healthcare, education, and highways.

Taxation

• States pay for social expenditures through taxes.

• It can stunt economic growth, but also provide equality

• GDP: The total market value of goods and services produced in a year.

  • How much of it is taken away to tax depends on the country

Money, Inflation, and Economic Growth

• The state influences economic growth by creating/managing money.

• Money is a medium of exchange (property has value, money is a method of transaction)

  • A society trusts its currency only when it trusts its state.

• The Central Bank controls how much money is printed and the interest rate for private banks to borrow the money.

  • Lowering interest rates: Private banks lower interest rates as well, encouraging people to borrow and spend more.
  • Raising interest rates: Private banks raise interest rates, encouraging people to stop borrowing and save.

• Inflation: Increase in overall prices. When it is too high:

  • When it is too high, money loses its value.

  • Central Banks try to control it by raising interest rates to reduce spending, therefore lowering prices.

  • States can be the cause of inflation when they have to borrow money at high interest rates.

  • Hyperinflation: When inflation rate is <50%/month for more than 2 months.

    • Governments print more money, but the public begins to think that the state can no longer support its currency - collapse of legitimacy.
    • Occurs when there’s too much debt, or if interest rates are high, money in the banks will get lower value.

• Deflation: Goods get cheaper [too much supply, not enough supply]

  • Businesses are unable to make profit, leading to unemployment and less spending.
  • States try to lower interest rates to encourage borrowing and spending to grow the economy.

• We can promote growth:

  • Import Substitution

  • Export-oriented industrialization - Short term growth

    • Could increase corruption
    • Unstable

Regulation

• Economic Regulations: Rules such as controlling the prices of goods, or controlling which firms operate in which markets. Ex. Monopolies
• Social Regulations: Managing risk, like safety/environmental standards

Trade

• Countries can influence the degree of competition by regulating which goods are imported.

• Tariffs: taxes on imports

  • Could generate revenue and protect domestic firms
  • Protecting firms could reduce competition and comparative advantage

• Quotas: Limits on how much of a good enters the country

• Non Tariff Regulatory Barriers: Create health, packaging, etc restrictions to protect citizens.

  • Regulations
  • Quotas - Limits on imports and exports

Political Economic Systems

• Political Economic systems: Relationship between economic and political institutions, and the relationship between freedom and equality

Liberalism

• Focuses on freedom over equality and limits state power.

  • Low autonomy and capacity and less involvement in the economy is better.

• Believes that individuals are responsible for their own well being.

• Laissez-Faire: “let do” → The state should not interfere by putting too many taxes, and unemployment is inevitable.

• Believes economic growth is maximized with less government interference.

• Believes a free market is necessary for a democracy.

  • If too much power is in the state, it can lead to a dictatorship
  • States like Singapore have free markets without a democracy, however.

Social Democracy

• Draws from the extremes of too much freedom or equality of liberalism and communism.
• Eduard Bernstein - Evolutionary Socialism
• Private property and market forces are accepted but approached more cautiously.
• Believes that the free market can cause inequality, and sees the state as the creator of social rights.
• Values public goods such as health care, and uses taxes to redistribute wealth.
• Some state ownership of some firms.
• Common in Europe

Communism

• Eliminates individual freedom for collective equality

• Sees private ownership as a way for one group of people to get power, leading to inequality and social classes.

  • Marx argued that this would lead to a revolution

• Private property is nationalized and the economy becomes a public good.

• Labor is allocated by the state, and trade is restricted.

• Capitalists say that it is impossible to have democracy with so much power in the state, and that states control the people’s fates.

Mercantilism

• Domestic economy is an instrument to create national economic power.

• It was common in the past, where the British Empire would only allow colonies to trade with the home country. It is now common in Asia.

• Through industrial policies, states have ownership over some industries (Parastatals)

• Uses tariffs, non tariff barriers, and trade regulations.

  • Sees foreign goods as creating dependence on foreign economies.
  • Ex. Japan focused on exports and made high tariff barriers to keep foreign competitors out.
  • Ex. Japan bans uber to protect the taxi industry

• State capacity and autonomy is generally higher.

• Can support industrial development in industries without a comparative advantage.

• It can be inefficient because outside competition is limited.

Comparing Outcomes of the systems

• Measuring Wealth

  • We can use GDP, the value of all goods and services produced in a year.

    • It is not the same as personal income, and doesn’t include government spending

    • It does not take into account the cost of living in those countries.

      • To eliminate this it uses PPP, Purchasing Power Parity, to estimate the buying power of income and compare costs.
      • Ex. Sweden’s GDP is higher than Germany’s, but with PPP, the economies are of similar size.

    • It does not take into account the QOL of the country, such as crime levels and health care.

      • Social democratic countries are undervalued using PPP.

    • Doesn’t take income disparity into account (Gini Coefficient)

• Measuring Inequality and Poverty

  • Gini Index: Measures inequality where complete equality is 0 and inequality is 100

    • More wealth does not mean more/less equal
    • Political economic systems matter: Social democratic countries have lower Gini ratings, while liberal ones have higher.

  • Most unequal countries are also poor, but poverty is not the same as inequality

    • Poverty is measured in terms of absolute wealth
    • Inequality is a measure of relative wealth

  • People have grown wealthier overall

  • There is more inequality that comes with economic growth

• Human Development Index HDI

  • HDI: measures wealth, distribution, income, health, and education [postmodernist]
  • Correlation between GDP and standard of living, education and life expectancy
  • Social democracies have better gender equality.

Political Violence

• Happiness

  • Happiness is a result of the balance between freedom and equality

  • Richer countries are generally happier

    • In extreme poverty, having money to eat is happiness, and therefore it is absolute.

  • Easterlin Paradox: When standard of living rises past a certain point, happiness stagnates.

    • Perhaps this is because happiness is a result of our relative income - how rich we are in comparison to others.

  • Wealth is not necessary for happiness, and factors like culture, freedom, corruption, and social support factor in.

• Rise and Fall of Liberalism?

  • Economic Liberalization has taken place throughout 1980~2005. However…
  • Social expenditures that contradict liberalism are common
  • Liberalization took place mostly in 1980-2005, and is not continuing now.
  • There is a larger middle class, but 40% of the wealth is held by 1%, so the middle class is undermined, therefore many oppose our current system.

• What is Political Violence?

  • The state has monopoly over violence and force over its territory

    • The right of individuals to use violence against each other (private war) was given to the state (public war) to ensure security for all.
    • Ex. Defeat rivals, defend themselves, and establish order/security(police)

  • Political Violence: Politically motivated violence outside of state control.

  • Contentious Politics: Collective political struggle, that includes things like revolution, protests, and strikes. Some critics see political violence as part of this.

• Why Political Violence?

  • Institutional Explanation: Puts emphasis on political, economic, or societal institutions

    • Systems that reduce power-sharing (ex. Presidential systems) increase the likelihood of marginalization, polarization, and conflict.
    • Often seen as a root source of violence

  • Ideational Explanation: Emphasizes the rationale behind violence

    • Ideas can be institutionalized or not.
    • Political violence is often associated with radical and reactionary ideas because they see the status quo as bankrupt.

  • Individual Explanation: Emphasizes the motivations of the individual

    • Psychological factors may motivate people to commit violence as an expression of desperation or desire for liberation.

      • Ex. Religious violence can be motivated by humiliation and the individual’s experience of being marginalized and alienated.
      • Ex. Terrorism may be a way for people to give meaning their lives

    • Individuals’ decisions may be completely Rational, and they may see it as the only way to achieve their goals.

Forms of Political Violence

• Revolution: Public seizure of the state to overturn the existing government

  • Must have public participation, led by leaders

    • Critics say the communist revolution in Russia was not a revolution because it was led by Lenin and a few other follows rather than the public

  • People are working to gain control over the state

  • People are trying to remove the entire regime, not just the