Notes on Shaping a New Republic

Topic 3.10: Shaping a New Republic

• Key Quote by John Adams: "There is nothing which I dread so much as a division of the republic into two great parties… [It] is to be dreaded as the greatest political evil under our Constitution." (Letter to Jonathan Jackson, 1780)

Learning Objectives

• Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why competition intensified conflict among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800.

• Learning Objective 2: Explain how and why political ideas, institutions, and party systems developed and changed in the new republic.

Challenges Facing the New Nation

• The new nation faced significant challenges:

  • Declaring independence

  • Fighting the Revolutionary War

  • Agreeing on a Constitution

  • Forming a functioning government

• The continuity of the Republic's existence was not guaranteed under the leadership of Washington and Adams.

Washington's Presidency

• First Congress:

  • Elected in 1788, began session in March 1789 in New York City (temporary capital).

  • George Washington was the unanimous choice for president.

Organizing the Federal Government

• Inauguration: Washington took the oath of office on April 30, 1789.

• The practical meaning of the Constitution's system of checks and balances was established through:

  • Legislative branch: Congress

  • Executive branch: President

  • Judicial branch: Supreme Court

Executive Departments

• Washington organized the executive branch:

  • He had the authority to appoint chiefs of departments, with Senate confirmation required.

  • Cabinet Members Appointed by Washington:

  • Thomas Jefferson: Secretary of State

  • Alexander Hamilton: Secretary of the Treasury

  • Henry Knox: Secretary of War

  • Edmund Randolph: Attorney General

• The cabinet serves as a source of advice for the president, a practice which continues today.

Federal Court System

• The Supreme Court is the only federal court mentioned in the Constitution.

• Congress was given the power to establish other federal courts.

• Judiciary Act of 1789:

  • Established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate justices.

  • Created 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeals.

  • Empowered the Supreme Court to rule on the constitutionality of state court decisions.

Hamilton's Financial Program

• Addressed pressing financial issues left over from the Articles of Confederation.

• Hamilton's Plan Included Three Main Actions:

  1. Pay off the national debt at face value and assume state war debts.

  2. Protect developing industries via high tariffs on imports.

  3. Create a national bank for government funds and currency.

• Support came primarily from northern merchants, while opponents included Anti-Federalists wary of central government power, led by Thomas Jefferson.

• Political Compromise:

  • Jefferson agreed to Hamilton's debt plans in exchange for a southern capital on the Potomac River.

National Bank Controversy

• Hamilton’s Argument:

  • The Constitution’s “necessary and proper” clause allowed for the creation of a national bank.

• Jefferson’s Position:

  • Argued that the Constitution did not authorize creating a bank.

• The national bank was chartered by the federal government but was privately owned, financing business and supplying currency.

Foreign Affairs under Washington

• Washington’s presidency coincided with the French Revolution, leading to challenges about U.S. involvement.

French Revolution

• Americans were generally supportive of the French democratic aspirations but concerned about violent events such as mob hysteria.

• Jeffersonians supported the revolutionary cause and called for U.S. assistance against Britain, but Washington opted for neutrality.

Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

• Washington’s stance aimed to avoid military engagements, prompting Jefferson's resignation in disagreement.

Citizen Genêt Incident

• Edmond “Citizen” Genêt bypassed diplomatic protocols to solicit U.S. support for France, leading to Washington requesting his removal from the U.S.

Jay Treaty (1794)

• Negotiated by John Jay to address:

  • British occupation of western posts.

  • Seizure of American ships by Britain.

• Resulted in British evacuation without addressing impressment, angering French supporters but maintaining neutrality.

Pinckney Treaty (1795)

• Response to the Jay Treaty, showing Spain’s concern over U.S.-British relations:

  • Opened Mississippi River and New Orleans for American trade.

  • Declared Florida’s northern boundary at the 31st parallel.

Domestic Concerns under Washington

• Settlers encroaching on Indian lands led to conflict in the Ohio Valley.

• Formed Northwest Confederacy led by Little Turtle, initially winning battles against settlers until defeated at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) by General Wayne.

• Treaty of Greenville:

  • Following defeat, tribes surrendered claims to Ohio Territory.

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

• Farmers resisted excise tax on whiskey, showcasing tension between federal authority and common people.

• Washington federalized the militia, quelling the rebellion without bloodshed and reinforcing federal power.

Expansion of Western Lands

• Rapid settlement encouraged by the Public Land Act of 1796, facilitating land sales and new states joining the Union (Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee).

The Rise of Political Parties

• Washington's election highlighted the belief that political parties were unnecessary, yet factions began developing.

Origins of Political Parties

• Factions formed around issues, evolving into organized parties:

  • Federalist Party: Led by Hamilton, supporting a strong central government and fiscal policies.

  • Democratic-Republican Party: Led by Jefferson, advocating for states' rights and agrarian interests.

Differences Between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans

Washington's Farewell Address

• Drafted with Hamilton's assistance; warned against:

  • Involvement in European affairs.

  • Permanent foreign alliances.

  • Formation of political parties.

  • Sectionalism.

• Consequence: Initiated a two-term tradition for future presidents, reinforced by the 22nd Amendment in 1951.

John Adams' Presidency

• Adams won in 1796 against Jefferson, becoming the second president with Jefferson as vice president.

The XYZ Affair

• Sparked tensions with France contributing to a rising call for war from Federalists, despite Adams' preference for diplomacy.

• Famous slogan: "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute."

Alien and Sedition Acts

• Enacted laws aimed at restricting Democratic-Republican opposition:

  • Naturalization Act (increased residency from 5 to 14 years).

  • Alien Acts (deporting dangerous aliens).

  • Sedition Act (criminalizing negative press against government).

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

• Argued that states could nullify federal laws deemed unconstitutional as a form of resistance against the Alien and Sedition Acts.

• Set a precedent for later disputes over state vs. federal authority.

Reflecting on Learning Objective 1

• Reflect on how disagreements deepened struggles among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800, as shown in the emergence of political parties, the debates over foreign policy, and internal civil unrest.