phil final
Character Traits of Critical Thinkers
Open-mindedness, inquisitiveness, systematic approach, analytical nature, truth-seeking, confidence in reasoning.
Epistemic justification
Having good reasons or evidence for a belief.
Epistemology
The study of knowledge and justified belief.
Objective truth
Truth that is independent of individual beliefs or feelings.
Subjective truth
Truth that depends on an individual's personal perspective or opinion.
Cultural alethic relativism
The belief that truth is relative to a particular culture.
Cultural relativism
The idea that moral codes vary by culture and no culture's ethics are superior.
Global alethic relativism
The belief that all truth is relative, universally.
Individual alethic relativism
The belief that truth is relative to each individual.
Individual moral relativism
The view that morality is relative to each individual's beliefs.
Global skepticism
The philosophical position that knowledge is impossible.
Alethic relativism is a psychological obstacle to critical thinking
False
Socrates argued for alethic relativism
False
Protagoras advocated both alethic and moral relativism
True
Gorgias advocated global skepticism
True
Socrates argued that if everyone believed in global skepticism, then critical thinking would die out.
True
Socrates argued that if alethic relativism is true, then nobody can ever err
True
Gorgias argued that the purpose of reasoning is to find the truth.
False
Socrates believed that truth is a purely subjective matter.
False
Gorgias believed that we can know objective truth.
False
One problem with cultural moral relativism is that if it is true, then moral progress is impossible.
True
One problem with individual moral relativism is that if it is true, then nobody has ever been mistaken on a moral matter.
True
The individual form of moral relativism is called “moral subjectivism.”
True
Socrates was a moral subjectivist.
False
Socrates was a sophist.
False
Socrates held the belief that skepticism was a threat to freedom.
True
On the JTB account, the justification of a belief must tie the belief to reality by giving a sufficient reason to believe the belief is true.
True
Epistemology is the study of opinion.
False
According to the JTB account of knowledge, the following three conditions are required for real knowledge, that is, Justification, truth, belief.
True
Background information never changes.
False
According to the text, expert testimony should always be trusted.
False
The principle of testimony states that testimony should be accepted unless we have good reason to doubt it.
True
Thomas Reid advocated the principle of testimony.
True
Sense experience, such as the smell of a rose, and personal experience are one and the same thing.
False
Personal experience can never be mistaken.
False
According to the text, experts are generally trustworthy in every area of thought, including areas outside their area of expertise.
False
Expert testimony is always infallible.
False
Memory is infallible.
False
An interested party is someone who is interested in a subject.
False
The cognitive biases have no effect on the way one interprets personal experiences.
False
The text argues that expert testimony is never to be questioned.
False
An expert in one area is usually a good source of knowledge in any other area as well.
False
Abusive ad hominem
Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself.
Circumstantial ad hominem
Dismissing someone's argument due to their circumstances or interests.
Guilty by association ad hominem
Discrediting an argument based on the person's association with others.
Argumentum ad populum
Appeal to popular belief or opinion as proof of truth.
Argumentum ad Misericordiam
Appeal to pity or emotion instead of logic.
Ignoratio Elenchi
Presenting an irrelevant argument—missing the point.
Petitio Principii (Begging the Question)
Assuming what you're trying to prove.
Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
Claiming something is true because it hasn't been proven false.
Argumentum ad Verecundiam
Appealing to an unqualified authority.
Post Hoc, ergo propter hoc
Assuming that because one thing followed another, it was caused by it.
Equivocation
Using ambiguous language to mislead.
Fallacy of Composition
Assuming what's true of the parts is true of the whole.
Fallacy of Division
Assuming what's true of the whole must be true of its parts.
Tu quoque means, “you are another.”
True
The tu quoque is a form of the ad hominem fallacy.
True
A fallacy is an error in reasoning that may nevertheless, appear logical to some people.
True
Begging the question or Petitio Principii occurs when you offer someone money to accept the conclusion.
False
The ad hominem fallacy attacks all human beings – It is antihuman.
False
The basic problem with the appeal to the people fallacy is that “the people” are not always right about everything.
True
If something is stated on a website, that is proof that it is definitely true.
False
Advertisers are primarily motivated by a desire to inform consumers to make a better choice about what they need to buy.
False
A euphemism is a word that tries to make something look worse than it is.
False
A dysphemism is a word that tries to make something look better than it is.
False
A weasel word is a word that makes something look worse than it is.
False
One source of bias occurs when news reporters inject their opinion into a story.
True
One of the factors influencing traditional news organizations is the need to make a profit.
True
One source of manipulation occurs when political campaigns exploit the negativity bias.
True
When evaluating a website for accuracy, one question to ask is Who is the author.
True
The authors of websites can be evaluated by many of the same criteria we use when we evaluate expert testimony.
True
What is the criterion for assessing the morality of actions according to Utilitarianism?
The consequences and whether they promote the greatest happiness.
Why is Utilitarianism called the greatest happiness principle?
Because it holds that actions are right if they promote happiness for the greatest number.
What is the difference between Act-utilitarianism and Rule utilitarianism?
Act-utilitarianism evaluates each act; Rule-utilitarianism follows rules that generally promote the greatest good.
What is the criterion for assessing the morality of actions according to I. Kant?
Whether the action conforms to duty and the categorical imperative.
Give three meanings of goodwill according to Kant.
Acting out of duty, 2. From respect for moral law, 3. With moral intent, not consequences.
Define ‘duty’ according to Kant.
Acting in accordance with moral law out of reverence for the law.
The two formulations of Kant’s categorical imperative deal with the universal law a.k.a. test of universalizability and respect for the person. Explain.
Universal Law: Act only on maxims you can will as universal laws.
Respect for Persons: Treat humanity as an end, never merely as a means.