U.S. History Regents Review: Comprehensive Study Guide

Colonial America ($1607$-$1763$)

• Earliest Colonies in North America

  • Jamestown, Virginia: Settled in $1607$ by businessmen from England seeking profit. The primary economic driver was growing and selling tobacco. The region featured fertile soil, leading to the development of powerful tobacco plantations—large farms reliant on slave labor.

  • Massachusetts Bay (Plymouth): Settled by Puritans from England seeking religious freedom. This colony was characterized by the construction of towns surrounded by small-scale farms.

  • New Amsterdam: Originally settled by Dutch traders on Manhattan island, focusing primarily on the fur trade. It was later seized by the British and renamed "New York."

• Geography and Trade

  • All early colonies were established along the Atlantic Coast to ensure proximity to water, which was essential for facilitating trade with the mother country.

• Economic and Governing Policies

  • Mercantilism: A policy where a "mother country" (England) utilizes colonies (America) to obtain raw materials and create new markets for its products. Under this system, colonies were forbidden from competing economically with the mother country.

  • Salutary Neglect: A British policy of leaving the American colonies alone in their day-to-day operations as long as raw materials were shipped to England and Americans continued to buy British-made goods. This allowed for significant autonomy.

• Early Democratic Foundations

  • The Mayflower Compact: An agreement by the first Puritan settlers in Massachusetts establishing the principle of self-government.

  • The House of Burgesses: Established in Virginia, this was the first elected legislature in the American colonies and represented an early step toward representative government, where people elected their own officials.

Declaration and American Independence ($1763$-$1776$)

• Shift in British Policy

  • The end of the French and Indian War in $1763$ (won by the British and Americans against the French and Indians) resulted in the abandonment of salutary neglect.

  • The British government, burdened by war debt, imposed new taxes on the colonists, including the Stamp Act, the Sugar Act, and the Tea Act.

• Colonial Reaction

  • Colonists viewed these taxes as unfair due to a lack of representation in the British government, coining the phrase: "No taxation without representation!"

  • Protests ensued through groups and events such as the Stamp Act Congress, the Sons of Liberty, the Boston Tea Party, and the First and Second Continental Congresses.

• The Declaration of Independence

  • Written by Thomas Jefferson at the behest of the Second Continental Congress.

  • Natural Rights: Influenced by John Locke and the Enlightenment, it states that all men are created equal and possess "unalienable" rights: "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

  • Social Contract: A government owes loyalty only to its people if it acts in their best interests. The primary job of the government is to protect natural rights.

  • Right to Revolution: If a government fails to protect these rights, the people have the right to "alter or abolish" it.

  • Consent of the Governed: The government derives its power from the permission of the people.

The Constitution ($1787$-$1791$)

• The Articles of Confederation

  • The first government of the U.S. was intentionally weak due to fears of central authority.

  • Characteristics: Only one branch (legislative/Congress); no executive branch to enforce laws; Congress could not collect taxes; most power resided with the states.

  • Failures: The government lacked money and power, evidenced by its inability to suppress Shays’ Rebellion without private financial aid.

  • Success: The Northwest Ordinance defined the procedure for adding new states to the nation.

• The Constitutional Convention ($1787$)

  • Framers met to create a stronger central government.

  • The Great Compromise: Resolved the debate between large states (wanting proportionate representation based on population) and small states (wanting equal representation). It created a bicameral legislature: a House of Representatives (proportionate) and a Senate (equal).

  • Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists: Federalists wanted a strong central government; Anti-Federalists feared government abuse and demanded a Bill of Rights, which was eventually added.

• Key Constitutional Principles

  • Limited Government: Restricting the power of the government.

  • Separation of Powers: Division into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

  • Checks and Balances: Each branch can limit the power of the others.

  • Flexibility: The Constitution is adaptable via the "elastic clause" (allowing Congress to make necessary laws) and the amendment process.

  • Federalism: Sharing of power between state and federal governments.

Early American Government ($1792$-$1820$)

• George Washington's Presidency

  • Established the foreign policy of isolationism (neutrality in European affairs).

  • Set the two-term tradition for presidents.

  • Signed the creation of the National Bank to stabilize the economy.

• Hamilton vs. Jefferson

  • Alexander Hamilton: A "loose constructionist" who favored a strong central government and the National Bank.

  • Thomas Jefferson: A "strict constructionist" who feared a strong government and opposed the National Bank as unconstitutional. This conflict led to the creation of the first political parties.

• The Unwritten Constitution

  • Practices based on tradition rather than written law: the two-term limit, the political party system, the Presidential Cabinet, lobbying, and judicial review.

  • Judicial Review: Established in Marbury v. Madison by Chief Justice John Marshall, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Westward Expansion ($1800$-$1900$)

• Manifest Destiny: The belief that God gave the U.S. the right to expand to the Pacific Ocean.

• Territorial Growth

  • Louisiana Purchase ($1803$): Jefferson bought territory from France, doubling U.S. size and gaining New Orleans and the Mississippi River.

  • Texas Annexation ($1845$): Texas broke from Mexico and was later added to the U.S.

  • Mexican Cession ($1848$): Following the Mexican-American War, Mexico ceded over $1/3$ of its territory (California, Arizona, etc.).

• Expansion Factors and Sectionalism

  • Impacted by the Erie Canal, Andrew Jackson's Indian Removal Act (leading to the Trail of Tears), the Homestead Act, the transcontinental railroad, and the Gold Rush.

  • Expansion increased sectionalism (North vs. South tensions) and conflict over whether slavery should be permitted in new territories.

Civil War and Reconstruction ($1820$-$1877$)

• Leading to War

  • Failed compromises: Missouri Compromise, Compromise of $1850$, Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the Fugitive Slave Law.

  • Dred Scott Decision: Supreme Court ruled slaves were property, not citizens, and that slavery was effectively legal everywhere.

  • $1860$ Election: Abraham Lincoln’s victory led the South to secede to protect slavery; Lincoln used force to preserve the Union.

• Reconstruction Amendments

  • $13^{th}$ Amendment: Abolished slavery.

  • $14^{th}$ Amendment: Guaranteed equal protection under the law and citizenship.

  • $15^{th}$ Amendment: Granted voting rights to African American men.

• Post-War South

  • Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws (segregation) and voter suppression (literacy tests, grandfather clauses, poll taxes).

  • Plessy v. Ferguson ($1894$): Supreme Court ruled "separate but equal" was legal.

  • Sharecropping became the primary way of life for former slaves.

Industrialization (Late $1800$s - Early $1900$s)

• Causes of Growth

  • Increasing population, agricultural revolution, advances in transportation (canals, railroads), communication (telegraph, telephone), and new energy sources (oil, electricity).

  • Government's open immigration policy provided necessary labor.

• Economic Philosophies

  • Laissez-faire Capitalism: Government should not regulate business, leading to monopolies, child labor, and poor conditions.

  • Social Darwinism: Used the "survival of the fittest" concept to justify wealth inequality.

• Monopolies and Labor

  • Led by "Robber Barons" like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller.

  • Labor unions formed to fight for better pay and conditions, leading to strikes (e.g., Haymarket Riot, Pullman Strike).

  • Nativism: Prejudice against "new immigrants" (Southern/Eastern Europe); the Chinese Exclusion Act ($1882$) banned Chinese immigration.

The Progressive Era ($1890$-$1920$)

• Major Reforms

  • Consumer Protection: Inspired by Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, leading to the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act.

  • Child Labor and Safety: Exposed by Jacob Riis (How The Other Half Lives); led to child labor bans and minimum wage laws.

  • Urban Conditions: Jane Addams opened settlement houses for the poor; new building safety laws were enacted.

  • Democracy: $17^{th}$ Amendment (direct election of Senators), referendum, and secret ballots.

  • Business Corruption: Teddy Roosevelt's "trust-busting," Clayton Antitrust Act, and the Federal Reserve Act.

  • Women’s Suffrage: Protests by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton led to the $19^{th}$ Amendment in $1920$.

  • Conservation: Teddy Roosevelt created the National Forest system.

American Imperialism & World War I (Late $1800$s - $1920$)

• Imperialism

  • Driven by a need for raw materials and military bases.

  • The Roosevelt Corollary ("Big Stick" policy) asserted the U.S. right to act as a "policeman" in Latin America.

  • Spanish-American War ($1898$): U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and control of Cuba. Built the Panama Canal shortly after.

• World War I

  • U.S. moved from neutrality to involvement due to the Lusitania sinking, German submarine warfare, and the Zimmerman Note.

  • Civil Liberties: Espionage and Sedition Acts restricted speech; Schenck v. United States established the "clear and present danger" test.

  • Ending the War: Wilson proposed the $14$ Points and the League of Nations, but the U.S. Senate rejected the League to avoid foreign entanglements.

The Roaring Twenties ($1920$s)

• Modern vs. Traditional Conflict

  • Flappers (social freedom) vs. traditionalists; Scopes Monkey Trial (Evolution vs. Creationism).

  • Failure of Prohibition ($18^{th}$ Amendment): Led to organized crime; repealed by the $21^{st}$ Amendment.

• Economic Boom and Nativism

  • Mass production (assembly line) and consumer credit created "false prosperity."

  • Resurgent KKK, Red Scare, and the Sacco and Vanzetti trial reflected high nativism. Immigration quotas were set in $1921$ and $1924$.

• Harlem Renaissance: A cultural movement of African American arts, featuring figures like Langston Hughes and Duke Ellington.

The Great Depression ($1929$-$1941$)

• Causes: Overproduction of goods/crops, excessive credit, and stock market speculation "on margin."

• Hoover’s Response: Criticized for inaction; "Hoovervilles" (shack towns) and the Bonus March (conflict with veterans).

• The Dust Bowl: Drought and overfarming in the Great Plains forced farmers to flee to California.

• FDR and the New Deal: Implemented Relief (Social Security), Recovery (jobs), and Reform (FDIC for bank safety).

  • Court-Packing Scandal: FDR’s attempt to increase Supreme Court justices from $9$ to $15$ to protect New Deal programs was blocked by Congress.

World War II ($1941$-$1945$)

• From Neutrality to War: Shifted from Neutrality Acts to the Lend-Lease Act (acting as the "arsenal of democracy") after the Pearl Harbor attack in $1941$.

• Homefront: Manhattan Project (atomic bomb), Japanese-American internment (ruled legal in Korematsu v. United States), Rosie the Riveter (women workers), and rationing.

• Conclusion: Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in $1945$. Post-war era saw the GI Bill, Nuremberg Trials, and the United Nations formation.

The Cold War ($1945$-$1991$)

• Containment: Policy to stop communism (Marshall Plan, Truman Doctrine, Berlin Airlift, Korea, Vietnam, Cuban Missile Crisis).

• Space/Arms Race: USSR launched Sputnik; US landed on the moon in $1969$.

• Fear at Home: McCarthyism ("witch hunt" for subversives), bomb shelters, and "duck and cover."

• $1950$s: Economic prosperity and the rise of suburbs.

Civil Rights Movement ($1950$s-$1960$s)

• Legal Battles: Brown v. Board of Education overturned Plessy, ending school segregation.

• Tactics: MLK Jr. used civil disobedience and nonviolence (Montgomery Bus Boycott, March on Washington).

• Legislation: Civil Rights Act of $1964$ (illegal segregation), Voting Rights Act of $1965$ (no literacy tests), and the $24^{th}$ Amendment (no poll taxes).

• Divide: Malcolm X and Black Power vs. MLK’s nonviolence.

The $1960$s

• The Great Society: LBJ’s "War on Poverty" (Medicare, Medicaid, Head Start).

• Women’s Rights: NOW, Roe v. Wade (legalizing abortion), and the Chicano movement (Cesar Chavez).

• Vietnam War: Fought for containment; led to domestic anti-war protests, loss of trust in government, and the $26^{th}$ Amendment (lowering voting age to $18$).

• War Powers Act ($1973$): Passed to limit the President's ability to involve the U.S. in undeclared wars.

The U.S. Since $1970$

• International: Détente (thawing of Cold War), Nixon’s visit to China, SALT treaties, Camp David Accords, and the end of the Cold War under Reagan.

• Domestic: Watergate Scandal (Nixon's resignation), $1970$s inflation/oil crisis, and Reagan’s "Supply-side economics" (tax cuts for the rich).

• Recent Events: Persian Gulf War, NAFTA free-trade treaty, globalization, and the Election of $2000$ (Bush won despite losing popular vote).