Ethics in Public Speaking

  • The Importance of Ethics
    • Ethics is a branch of philosophy focused on discerning right from wrong in human actions.
    • Ethical questions arise daily when evaluating actions as moral/immoral, fair/unfair, just/unjust, or honest/dishonest.
    • Examples include:
      • A parent disciplining an unruly child.
      • A researcher contemplating manipulating data for credit.
      • A shopper finding extra change from a clerk.
      • A student witnessing a friend cheating on an exam.
    • In public speaking, ethical considerations are paramount.
    • The Greek philosopher Plato idealized truthful speakers devoted to societal good.
    • History shows speech can be abused, as exemplified by Adolf Hitler, whose persuasive oratory was guided by horrifying aims and despicable tactics, highlighting the need for ethical integrity in speech.
  • Ethical Issues in Speech Making
    • Speakers encounter ethical issues at every stage, from topic selection to final delivery.
    • Dilemma Example: Felicia Robinson's Campaign
    • Felicia, running for school board, faces an opponent using unethical tactics (twisting facts, pandering to racial prejudice).
    • Five days before the election, Felicia learns her opponent is about to be indicted for shady business practices, but the indictment won't be formal until after the election and does not prove guilt.
    • Her advisors suggest using this information to win, while Felicia is troubled by unfairly attacking her opponent despite his own unethical behavior.
    • This poses an age-old ethical dilemma: Do the ends justify the means?
  • Navigating Ethical Decisions
    • Complex ethical cases like Felicia's rarely have simple answers.
    • Strong ethical decisions involve evaluating actions against established ethical standards or guidelines, not personal whim.
    • These guidelines act as a compass for public speakers.
  • Guidelines for Ethical Speaking
    • 1. Make Sure Your Goals Are Ethically Sound
    • Speakers have a primary responsibility to assess if their objectives align with ethical principles.
    • Example: Melissa's Job Offer
      • A former student, Melissa, declined a public relations job for the American Tobacco Institute because she found it unethical to promote a product linked to thousands of deaths and illnesses.
      • This illustrates how ethical considerations deeply influence a speaker's choice of goals.
    • Unethical Goals: Stirring people to condone war (Hitler), betraying public trust for personal gain, defrauding investors, or preachers living lavishly at the expense of religious duties.
    • Ethically Sound Goals: Improving children's health, paying tribute to a coworker, supporting Habitat for Humanity.
    • While gray areas exist, responsible speakers must still assess the ethical soundness of their goals.
    • 2. Be Fully Prepared for Each Speech
    • A speech is a serious responsibility, requiring thorough preparation for both the speaker and the audience.
    • Jenkin Lloyd Jones's Perspective: A speaker giving a bad 30-minute speech to 200 people wastes only a half-hour of their own time but 100 hours of the audience's time, which Jones called a "hanging offense." (200 ext{ people} imes 0.5 ext{ hours/person} = 100 ext{ hours}).
    • Preparation is crucial regardless of audience size or composition.
    • Elements of Preparation: Audience analysis, visual aids, organizing ideas, rehearsing delivery.
    • Ethical Cruciality: Being fully informed about the subject material.
    • Example: Victoria Nunez's Suicide Prevention Speech
      • Victoria thoroughly researched suicide prevention (psychology textbook, articles, crisis counselor interview, mother's experience on a hotline).
      • She created a handout with warning signs and mental health resources.
      • Her speech helped a classmate, Paul, identify and assist a potentially suicidal roommate, potentially saving a life.
      • This demonstrates the profound impact speeches can have and the ethical responsibility to provide accurate, well-researched information.
    • Speakers must investigate all sides of an issue, seek competing viewpoints, and ensure factual accuracy.
    • 3. Be Honest in What You Say
    • Honesty is fundamental to ethical speech making, as public speaking relies on the unspoken assumption of truthfulness.
    • Absolute truth is not always possible (lack of full knowledge) or advisable (tactlessness).
      • Examples: A parent praising a child's "beautiful" violin solo; a falsehood preventing violence.
    • Blatant Dishonesty: Elizabeth Holmes's repeated lies about defrauding investors, detailed at the beginning of the chapter.
    • Subtler Forms of Dishonesty (Equally Unethical):
      • Juggling statistics.
      • Quoting out of context.
      • Misrepresenting sources.
      • Presenting tentative findings as conclusions.
      • Citing unusual cases as typical examples.
      • Substituting innuendo and fact sheets for evidence and proof.
    • These violate the duty to be accurate and fair.
    • Ethically responsible speakers never present others' words as their own; they do not plagiarize.
    • 4. Avoid Name-Calling and Other Forms of Abusive Language
    • The saying "sticks and stones may break my bones, but words can never hurt me" is false; words can inflict severe psychological harm.
    • Name-calling: Using language to defame, demean, or degrade individuals or groups based on race, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, religious beliefs, or ethnic background.
    • Destructive Social Force: Repeated use reinforces prejudice, hate crimes, and civil rights violations.
    • Free Speech and Ethical Responsibilities: Name-calling obstructs the free and open expression of ideas crucial for a democratic society.
    • Legality vs. Ethics: While most abusive speech is protected under the First Amendment (e.g., broadly worded codes against hate speech rarely survive legal challenges), it remains ethically indefensible.
      • Falsifying statistics is not illegal but unethical; racial, sexual, or religious slurs may not be illegal but are unethical.
      • Such language demeans individuals and undermines the right of all groups to be fairly heard.
    • 5. Put Ethical Principles into Practice
    • Ethical behavior is a continuous commitment, not just a convenience.
    • Speakers face strategic questions (topic suitability, supporting materials, phrasing) and ethical decisions.
    • Checklist for Ethical Public Speaking:
      • Goals: Are they ethically sound? Can I defend them? Would I want my motives known?
      • Preparation: Have I fulfilled my obligation to prepare fully, research thoroughly, and avoid misleading information?
      • Plagiarism: Is the speech original work? Are all sources (quotations, paraphrases) cited?
      • Honesty: Is the speech free of false/deceptive statements? Are statistics, testimony, and evidence fair and accurate? Is reasoning valid? Are visual aids honest and reliable?
      • Language: Do I use language ethically? Avoid name-calling? Show respect for free speech?
      • Overall: Have I consciously put ethical principles into practice?
  • Plagiarism
    • Derived from plagiarios (Latin for kidnapper).
    • Means presenting another's language or ideas as one's own, creating a false impression of originality.
    • Repercussions: Can lead to failing grades or expulsion in academia, and severe damage to reputation, career loss, or lawsuits outside the classroom.
    • Example: Robert Caslen's Commencement Address
    • As President of the University of South Carolina, Caslen plagiarized the conclusion of a commencement speech from Navy Admiral William McRaven.
    • This led to national headlines and Caslen's resignation within a week, highlighting the seriousness of plagiarism.
    • Types of Plagiarism and How to Avoid Them:
    • 1. Global Plagiarism:
      • Stealing an entire speech from a single source and presenting it as one's own.
      • Grossly unethical and unforgivable.
      • Often results from procrastination and desperation (e.g., downloading a speech online).
      • Prevention: Start early to ensure ample time for original preparation. The penalty for being late is far less severe than for plagiarism.
    • 2. Patchwork Plagiarism:
      • Pilfering passages from two or three sources and stitching them together with minimal original content or transitions.
      • Example: Lexi Ngo's Informative Speech
      • Lexi researched autonomous vehicles using a journal article, Wikipedia, and a university website.
      • Instead of writing in her own words, she copied long passages from these sources, patching them together.
      • Her teacher detected it by Googling phrases from her outline, immediately finding the original sources.
      • Copying from a few sources is no less plagiarism than from one.
      • Prevention: Start working early to develop your own perspective. Consult a wide range of sources to broaden understanding and reduce the temptation to copy.
    • 3. Incremental Plagiarism:
      • Occurs when a speaker fails to give credit for specific parts (increments) of the speech borrowed from others, even if the overall speech is mostly original.
      • Quotations: Direct quotes must always be attributed to the source.
      • Example: Quoting Bruce Perry on Malcolm X's impact: "According to historian Bruce Perry in his book Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America…" ensures proper attribution.
      • Paraphrases: Restating or summarizing another's ideas in your own words still requires attribution, especially if you are borrowing an opinion or a specific judgment.
      • If you paraphrase Perry's analysis of Malcolm X, you must still credit Perry.
      • Basic, well-known facts don't need sources, but contested views or specific interpretations do.
      • Accidental Plagiarism: Possible, but still plagiarism.
      • Prevention for Incremental Plagiarism:
      • Careful Note-Taking: Distinguish between direct quotes, paraphrased material, and your original thoughts during research (refer to Chapter 7).
      • When in doubt, cite the source. Better to over-cite than plagiarize.
    • Plagiarism and the Internet
    • The ease of copying from the web often leads to a failure to cite online sources, which is still plagiarism.
    • Careful Internet Research Notes: Record title, author/organization, last updated date, and access date for all Internet documents.
    • Oral Citations: You must identify author and website when presenting; simply saying "I found on the web" is insufficient (refer to Chapter 8).
    • Speech-Selling Websites: Highly unethical and risky. The material is often low quality, and instructors can easily detect plagiarism using technology.
    • Honesty is always the best policy.
  • Ethical Dilemma in Career (Example)
    • A public administration graduate working for a state senator finds a draft speech supporting scholarships but attacking opponents as "elitist bigots."
    • The staffer agrees with the bill but is dismayed by the name-calling, concerned it's unethical and counterproductive.
    • The staffer must decide whether to comment on the ethics to the senator within two hours, risking their position.
  • Guidelines for Ethical Listening
    • Listening is not a one-way street; listeners also have ethical obligations.
    • 1. Be Courteous and Attentive
    • Example: Classroom Speech Scenario
      • A student giving their first speech notices classmates doing homework, checking phones, gazing out windows, or sleeping.
      • This lack of attention causes the speaker's confidence and concentration to waver, leading to panic and a rushed delivery.
    • Listeners have a responsibility to be civil, courteous, and attentive.
    • In speech class, support fellow students by sitting upright, maintaining eye contact, and showing encouragement.
    • Understand the power of your feedback on the speaker's confidence.
    • 2. Avoid Prejudging the Speaker
    • "You can't judge a book by its cover"; similarly, don't judge a speech based on the speaker's name, race, lifestyle, appearance, or reputation.
    • The National Communication Association's credo advises listeners to understand and respect speakers before evaluating their messages.
    • The goal is to listen carefully, assess evidence and reasoning, and make an intelligent judgment about the speech.
    • 3. Maintain the Free and Open Expression of Ideas
    • A democratic society thrives on free expression, safeguarded by the First Amendment.
    • Listeners have an obligation to uphold speakers' rights to be heard.
    • Debate on Limits: While some speech is unprotected (defamatory falsehoods, threats, incitement to illegal action), most experts agree on an almost unlimited right to free expression.
    • Critics argue some ideas are too dangerous, misguided, or offensive to be uttered, but free speech advocates question who decides.
    • Supporting free expression does not imply agreeing with the ideas expressed.
    • The NCA credo emphasizes that freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent are vital for informed decision-making and a civil society.
  • Summary of Ethical Responsibilities
    • Public speaking is powerful and demands heavy ethical responsibilities.
    • The ideal is "the good person speaking well."
    • Five Ethical Guidelines for Speakers:
    1. Ethically sound goals.
    2. Full preparation.
    3. Honesty.
    4. Avoid name-calling/abusive language.
    5. Practice ethical principles consistently.
    • Plagiarism Types:
    • Global plagiarism (entire speech from one source).
    • Patchwork plagiarism (stitching from a few sources).
    • Incremental plagiarism (failure to credit specific quotes/paraphrases).
    • Three Ethical Guidelines for Listeners:
    1. Listen courteously and attentively.
    2. Avoid prejudging the speaker.
    3. Support free and open expression of ideas.
    • Speech class offers a practical testing ground for ethical responsibilities.
  • Key Terms (with page numbers from the transcript):
    • ethics (28)
    • ethical decisions (29)
    • name-calling (32)
    • Bill of Rights (32)
    • plagiarism (34)
    • global plagiarism (35)
    • patchwork plagiarism (35)
    • incremental plagiarism (35)
    • paraphrase (37)
  • Review Questions:
    • What is ethics?
    • Why is a strong sense of ethical responsibility vital for public speakers?
    • What are the five guidelines for ethical speech making discussed in this chapter?
    • What is the difference between global plagiarism and patchwork plagiarism?
    • What are the best ways to avoid these two kinds of plagiarism?
    • What is incremental plagiarism? How can you steer clear of it when dealing with quotations and paraphrases?
    • What are the three guidelines for ethical listening discussed in this chapter?
  • Exercises for Critical Thinking:
    • Felicia Robinson's Dilemma: Evaluate Felicia's situation (pages 28–29) using the ethical speech-making guidelines. Explain the most ethical course of action.
    • Insulting/Abusive Speech: Discuss if society should punish such speech criminally, if colleges are justified in disciplining students, and if any boundaries on free expression are proper for abusive speech. Justify your stance.
    • Ethical Scenarios in Speech Class: For each situation, identify the ethical issue and describe your course of action as a responsible speaker or listener:
    • Poll Citation: When researching prison reform, you find two polls: one independent (Gallup) opposing your view, and one partisan (suspect methods) supporting it. Which do you cite? Do you mention shortcomings of the second?
    • Classmate Plagiarism: You realize a classmate's informative speech is largely plagiarized from a website you know. Do you speak up in class, tell the instructor after class, talk to the speaker, or remain silent?
    • Misleading Quotation: You find a strong quotation from an expert for your persuasive speech, but reading the full article reveals the author doesn't support your policy. Do you still include the quotation? Why or why not?