Unit 1: Political Systems, Regimes, and Governments Study Guide

Big Ideas in AP Comparative Government and Politics (2025)

• The following five big ideas form the core of the curriculum:   - 1. POWER AND AUTHORITY (PAU)   - 2. LEGITIMACY AND STABILITY (LEG)   - 3. DEMOCRATIZATION (DEM)   - 4. INTERNAL/EXTERNAL FORCES (IEF)   - 5. METHODS of POLITICAL ANALYSIS (MPA)

Methods of Political Analysis (MPA)

• Enduring Understanding: Empirical data is essential for identifying and explaining the political behavior of individuals and groups.

• Political Science Practice: Political scientists construct knowledge and communicate inferences regarding political systems, institutional interactions, and behavior through the analysis of quantitative and qualitative information.   - Quantitative Data: This involves objective measurements and statistical information derived from sources such as governmental reports, polls, questionnaires, and surveys. Analysis of charts, tables, and graphs allows for comparisons in areas such as:     - Evaluating political systems as democratic or authoritarian.     - Comparing policy making in presidential vs. parliamentary systems.     - Analyzing interactions between executive, legislative, and judicial branches.     - Studying voting and participation behaviors across ethnic and religious cleavages.   - Qualitative Data: This is information that is difficult to measure numerically, including speeches, foundational documents, political cartoons, maps, and political commentaries.

• Empirical vs. Normative Statements:   - Empirical Statements: Factual and objective (e.g., "Russia is a multiethnic state").   - Normative Statements: Value-based or opinion-based statements that cannot be proven or disproven (e.g., "Putin should not have returned to become Russia’s president in $2012$").

• Causation and Correlation:   - Correlation: Exists when there is an association between two or more variables.   - Causation: Extremely difficult to determine with certainty in comparative politics due to the numerous variables that influence policies or regime stability, making it impossible to isolate a single cause.

Economic and Development Indicators

• Human Development Index (HDI): A summary measure from the United Nations Development Programme assessing average achievement in life expectancy, schooling, and income.   - $2021$ HDI Ranks:     - United Kingdom: Rank $18$ ($0.929$)     - United States: Rank $21$ ($0.921$)     - Russia: Rank $52$ ($0.822$)     - Iran: Rank $76$ ($0.774$)     - China: Rank $79$ ($0.768$)     - Mexico: Rank $86$ ($0.758$)     - Nigeria: Rank $163$ ($0.535$)

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Market value of goods and services produced in a country over a specific time.   - GDP ($2022$ Estimate in U.S. Millions):     - United States: $\$25,035,164$     - China: $\$18,321,197$     - United Kingdom: $\$3,198,470$     - Russia: $\$2,133,092$     - Iran: $\$1,973,738$     - Mexico: $\$1,424,533$     - Nigeria: $\$504,203$

• GDP per Capita: Reflects the size of the national economy relative to the population size.   - $2022$ Estimates: United States ($\$75,180$), United Kingdom ($\$47,320$), Iran ($\$23,030$), Russia ($\$14,670$), China ($\$12,970$), Mexico ($\$10,118$), Nigeria ($\$2,330$).

• GDP Growth Rate: Shows the rate of economic expansion.   - $2022$ Rates: UK ($3.6\%$), China ($3.2\%$), Nigeria ($3.2\%$), Iran ($3\%$), Mexico ($2.1\%$), US ($1.6\%$), Russia ($-3.4\%$).

• Gini Index: Measures income inequality ($0\%$ is perfect equality, $100\%$ is perfect inequality).   - Gini Data: Mexico ($45.4$ in $2020$), US ($41.5$ in $2019$), Iran ($40.9$ in $2019$), China ($38.2$ in $2019$), Russia ($36$ in $2020$), UK ($35.1$ in $2017$), Nigeria ($35.1$ in $2018$).

• GDP Composition by Economic Sector ($2017$):   - Service sectors dominate the UK ($79.2\%$) and US ($80\%$).   - Agriculture is significant in Nigeria ($21.1\%$) and Iran ($9.6\%$) compared to the UK ($0.7\%$).

Political Systems, Regimes, States, and Nations

• Definitions:   - Political System: Laws, ideas, and procedures addressing authority and the government's role in the economy/society.   - State: Political organization with a permanent population, governing institutions, and international recognition of its control over a defined territory.   - Regime: Fundamental rules controlling access to and exercise of political power (typically endure across governments).   - Government: Set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state.   - Sovereignty: Independent legal authority over a population in a particular territory.   - Nation: Group of people with commonalities (race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity).

• Profiles of the Six Core Countries:   - China: Authoritarian regime established by revolution in $1949$. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) holds ultimate power. Xi Jinping is the paramount leader; in $2018$, term limits were removed.   - Iran: Theocracy established by revolution in $1979$. Constitution mandates a religious leader (Supreme Leader) of Shi'a Islam as head of state. Features the theory of Vilayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist).   - Russia: Illiberal/Authoritarian. Constitution ratified in $1993$, but under Vladimir Putin, power has centralized. The dominant party is United Russia.   - Nigeria: Constitutional democracy since $1999$. Features a directly elected president. Despite elections, it leans authoritarian with weak protections for journalists.   - Mexico: Democratic/Illiberal. Constitution established in $1917$. Historically dominated by the PRI party until $2000$.   - United Kingdom: Democratic parliamentary system. Monarch is head of state (ceremonial), while the Prime Minister (selected by the House of Commons) is head of government.

• Ethnic Groups (Nations) Samples:   - China: Uighurs, Tibetans, Han Chinese.   - Nigeria: Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo.   - UK: Scottish, Irish, English, Welsh.

Democracy vs. Authoritarianism

• Rule of Law: Principle that states should be governed by known laws rather than arbitrary decisions.   - Democratic Examples: Mexico (Pea Nieto leaving due to term limits), UK (Commons blocking airstrikes in Syria in $2013$).   - Authoritarian Examples: China (Xi ending term limits), Russia ($2020$ referendum allowing Putin to extend rule).

• Media Influence:   - Authoritarian: China (Great Fire Wall), Russia (control over media covering $2022$ Ukraine invasion), Iran (government ownership of broadcast media).   - Democratic: Mexico/Nigeria have some private media but offer weak protection for journalists investigating corruption.

• Elections:   - Free and Fair: Transfer of power in Mexico ($2000$) and Nigeria ($2015$). UK ($2024$ Labour victory).   - Restricted: Iran (Guardian Council vets candidates), Russia (Putin has never faced a runoff).

• Branch Independence:   - Independent: Mexico (Supreme Court judicial review), Nigeria (legislature rejected third term for president in $2006$).   - Non-independent: China (National People's Congress as a "rubber stamp"), Russia (Federation Council approved Crimea and Ukraine interventions).

Democratization

• Democratization: Transition from an authoritarian to a democratic regime, aiming for competition, fairness, transparency, and universal suffrage.

• Democratic Consolidation: Process where a democratic regime matures, making it unlikely to revert to authoritarianism.

• Progress Indicators:   - Independent Election Commissions: Mexico's National Elections Institute (INE), Nigeria's Independent Electoral Commission (NIEC), UK’s Electoral Commission.   - Interest Groups: Comparison between Corporatist Systems (government-controlled, e.g., China) and Pluralist Systems (independent groups, e.g., UK, Mexico).   - Gender Quotas: In Mexico, constitutional amendments in $2014$ and $2019$ led to gender parity in the legislature; the hashtag #ParidadEnTodo (parity in everything) was central to this movement. Mexico elected its first female president, Claudia Sheinbaum, in $2024$.

Sources of Power and Stability

• Military Control: The People's Liberation Army (PLA) in China is a political army swearing allegiance to the CCP. China, Russia, and Iran spend significantly more on military than Mexico or Nigeria.

• Resource Nationalization: Sources of legitimacy include the nationalization of oil in Iran (NIOC since $1979$) and Mexico (PEMEX since $1938$).

• Charismatic Leadership: Vladimir Putin is cited as a leader who stabilized Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union through nationalism.

• Fragile States Index ($2024$): Higher scores ($120$ max) indicate instability.   - Nigeria: $96.6$   - Iran: $82.9$   - Russia: $81.6$   - Mexico: $69.0$   - China: $64.4$   - USA: $44.5$   - UK: $40.8$

Conflict and Internal Actors

• Transparency Acts: UK ($2000$), Nigeria ($2011$), and Mexico have passed Freedom of Information Acts.

• Mass Protests and State Responses:   - Iran: Green Movement ($2009$) and Mahsa Amini protests ($2022$) resulted in violent repression.   - Nigeria: #EndSARS movement ($2020$) against police brutality.   - China: Tiananmen Square ($1989$); Uighur re-education camps in Xinjiang province to combat separatism.   - UK: $2010$ student protests against tuition increases; $2020$ Black Lives Matter solidarity marches.   - Mexico: Protests over "Missing $43$" students ($2014$) linked to cartel-police collusion.

• Political Corruption: Use of corruption charges by Xi Jinping to punish nearly $1,000,000$ officials since $2013$ to consolidate power.

• Devolution: The UK has devolved power to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (e.g., Scotland's $2023$ gender recognition bill dispute).