CH 5.3_factors that help explain differences in educational achievement and experience

Patterns in educational achievement and experience

• Educational inequality – differences in educational achievement and experience between social groups.

• Sociologists study patterns based on:

  • Social class

  • Ethnicity

  • Gender

  • Global differences in education

• Different groups may:

  • Be treated differently in schools

  • Experience different teaching methods

  • Achieve different levels of success

  • Have different experiences of education

Important reminder

• Sociological patterns apply to large groups, not every individual.

• Some individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds achieve highly, even if overall patterns show inequality.

Patterns and explanations for differences in educational achievement and experience based on social class

Social class and education

• Social class is a major factor influencing educational achievement.

• Historically:

  • Education mainly for upper-class children.

  • Working-class children received little or very basic schooling.

  • System was effectively two-tier:

    • Basic or no schooling for most children

    • High-quality education for privileged groups.

Example: UK historical system

• Working-class children → basic primary schools run by churches/charities.

• Upper-class children → private boarding schools.

Modern changes

• Most children now attend similar state schools.

• However, fee-paying private schools still give advantages to wealthier families

I. Material factors

Material deprivation

• Material deprivation – lack of money and resources that affects a child's education.

Ways poverty can disadvantage students

• No quiet place to study (small or crowded homes).

• Poor diet → tiredness and poor concentration.

• Cannot afford school uniforms, equipment, trips, sports kit.

• Lack of pre-school education, leading to starting school behind others.

• Limited digital access (no laptop, tablet, internet).

Example: COVID-19 pandemic

• Some students could study online at home.

• Others without internet could not continue learning effectively.

Other disadvantages

• Few books or educational materials at home.

• Part-time jobs to support family income → less time to study.

II. Cultural and social factors

Cultural deprivation

• Cultural deprivation – lack of values, attitudes, and behaviours that support educational success.

Possible working-class cultural factors

• Fatalism

  • Belief that individuals cannot control their future.

  • May reduce motivation to succeed at school.

• Immediate gratification

  • Preference for short-term rewards (earning money now).

  • Less focus on long-term goals like university.

• Deferred gratification (middle-class value)

  • Willingness to delay rewards for future benefits (better job, higher income).

• Search for excitement

  • Lack of opportunities may lead some youth to deviant behaviour or crime.

  • Linked to masculinity culture valuing risk and rule-breaking.

• Parental attitudes

  • Some parents may value education less due to negative school experiences.

Criticism of cultural deprivation theory

• Suggests working-class culture is inferior, which many sociologists reject.

• Many working-class parents:

  • Value education

  • Want their children to succeed.

Possible real issues

• Lack of knowledge of the education system.

• Lack of confidence to challenge schools.

• Some parents avoid school contact due to bad past experiences.

III. Cultural capital

Cultural capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

• Cultural capital – knowledge, values, skills, and cultural experiences that help individuals succeed in education.

Two types of capital

• Economic capital

  • Financial resources available to support education.

• Cultural capital

  • Cultural knowledge and behaviours valued by schools.

Examples of cultural capital

• Familiarity with books and reading.

• Visits to museums, galleries, concerts.

• Strong belief in importance of education.

Middle-class advantages

• Parents understand how the education system works.

• Can help children navigate exams, school choices, and opportunities.

Working-class disadvantage

• Less cultural capital.

• Teachers may perceive them less favourably.

IV. Home and community factors

Home and community influences

• Home and community environments may reinforce educational disadvantage.

Examples

• Attending schools in poorer areas

  • Often have fewer resources and funding.

  • Higher levels of social or behavioural problems.

• Families may be unable to afford university education.

  • Children may lower their ambitions early.

• Community loyalty

  • Moving up socially may be seen as rejecting your community.

• Lack of role models

  • If no one around has succeeded academically, education may seem irrelevant.

• Local problems

  • Crime, gangs, drugs can disrupt education.

Middle-class advantage

• Parents more able to:

  • Buy books and resources

  • Pay for private tutors or extra lessons.

V. Linguistic factors

Language codes (Basil Bernstein, 1971)

Restricted code

• Informal everyday language used with family and friends.

• Limited vocabulary.

• Meanings often implicit because people share context.

Elaborated code

• Language used in schools, textbooks, formal writing.

• Meanings explicit and detailed.

• Allows expression of complex and abstract ideas.

Bernstein's argument

• Middle-class children more familiar with elaborated code.

• Teachers may interpret this as greater ability.

Important note

• Restricted code is not inferior.

• Everyone uses it.

• Advantage lies in being able to switch between both codes.

VI. Compensatory education

Compensatory education

• Government programmes designed to reduce educational disadvantage.

• Aim to compensate for disadvantages in children's backgrounds.

Examples

• Extra funding for disadvantaged schools.

• Incentives to attract high-quality teachers to poorer areas.

• Free preschool programmes for disadvantaged children.

Goal

• Ensure children start school with basic literacy and social skills.

VII. In-school factors

School influence on achievement

• Some sociologists argue school factors also affect achievement.

Michael Rutter (1979) – Fifteen Thousand Hours

• Found school quality can influence life chances.

• Effective schools have:

  • Good organisation

  • Clear rules

  • High expectations for students

Tim Morris (2021)

• Children who enjoy school at age 6 often achieve higher exam results at 16.

Problems in disadvantaged schools

• Less funding.

• More behavioural and social problems.

• Lower academic expectations.

Peer groups and sub-cultures

Pro-school subculture

• Students who support school values and norms.

• Believe in studying hard and academic success.

• Often linked with middle-class learners.

Anti-school subculture (counter-school subculture)

• Students reject school values.

• Often formed by learners who struggle academically.

Examples of anti-school behaviour

• Truanting (missing school without permission).

• Avoiding schoolwork.

• Cheating in homework or tests.

• Being aggressive or disrespectful towards teachers.

• Bullying hard-working students.

• Involvement in delinquency or crime.

Reason for anti-school subcultures

• Provide status and self-esteem among peers when academic success is unlikely.

Patterns and explanations for differences in educational achievement and experience based on ethnicity

Link with social class

• Many minority ethnic groups are more likely to be working class

• This leads to:

  • Material disadvantage

  • Lower access to educational resources

• Some immigrant groups:

  • Come from low-income backgrounds

  • Or lose previous social status after migration

• So ethnic inequality often overlaps with class inequality

I. Institutional racism

Definition

• Institutional racism – discrimination built into institutions (education, justice, health, etc.), often unintentionally

In education

• Schools may:

  • Treat ethnic minority learners unfairly

  • Reinforce inequality through systems and practices

Examples of institutional racism

• Higher exclusion rates for some ethnic groups

• Unequal expectations from teachers

• Biased disciplinary systems

• Ethnic stereotypes influencing school decisions

Effects

• Ethnic minority learners may:

  • Feel excluded or unfairly treated

  • Develop negative attitudes toward school

  • Rebel against school authority

  • Experience lower achievement

II. Ethnocentric curriculum

Definition

• Ethnocentrism – belief that the dominant culture is superior or “normal”

• Ethnocentric curriculum – school curriculum based mainly on dominant culture

Examples in schools

• Language teaching – minority languages seen as less valuable

• Literature – focus on majority culture texts

• History – lack of minority ethnic history

• Religion – dominant religion prioritised in assemblies

• Festivals – majority culture celebrations dominate

Effects

• Minority ethnic learners may:

  • Feel excluded or unrepresented

  • Lose interest in education

  • Feel their culture is inferior

Colonial influence

• Some countries still use:

  • Colonial language (e.g. English/French)

  • Curriculum based on former coloniser’s culture

III. Role models

• Institutional racism can lead to lack of role models

• Few ethnic minority teachers or professionals in:

  • Schools

  • Business

  • Politics

Effects

• Learners may:

  • Have lower aspirations

  • Believe success is less achievable

  • Limit career goals

IV. Linguistic factors

Language disadvantage

• Some learners are taught in a non-native language

• This can cause:

  • Difficulty understanding lessons

  • Slower academic progress

Devaluation of languages

• Minority languages may be seen as:

  • “Incorrect” or “uneducated”

• Example:

  • African American Vernacular English (AAVE)

    • Once wrongly seen as “bad English”

    • Labov showed it has rules and structure

Impact

• Learners may be:

  • Marked down unfairly

  • Misjudged as low ability

Bilingual advantage

• Being bilingual or multilingual can:

  • Improve cognitive skills

  • Help learning flexibility

V. Cultural, material and social factors

Cultural factors

• Education success may depend on:

  • Value placed on schooling

  • Religion or cultural expectations

• Conflicts between school and home values may:

  • Reduce achievement

Teacher stereotypes

• Appearance, speech, or behaviour may:

  • Reinforce stereotypes

  • Lead to self-fulfilling prophecy

Material factors

• Minority ethnic groups may be more likely to be:

  • Working class

• This leads to:

  • Lack of resources

  • Reduced access to educational support

VI. Home and community factors

Parental support and aspiration

• Example: Chinese learners in UK (Archer)

  • Parents strongly value education

  • High expectations (“be the best” not just “do your best”)

  • Frequent involvement in education

Effects of strong home support

• Clear educational goals

• High motivation

• Strong achievement outcomes

Community influence

• Family and community culture can:

  • Encourage or discourage academic success

  • Shape ambition levels

  • Influence attitudes toward education

VII. In-school factors

Institutional racism in schools

• Schools may:

  • Place minority ethnic learners in lower sets/streams

  • Use ethnocentric curriculum

  • Hold lower expectations

  • Fail to challenge racism

Labelling and self-fulfilling prophecy

• Teachers may label students as:

  • “Troublemakers”

  • “Low ability”

• This can lead to:

  • Lower achievement

  • Behaviour changes matching label

Pro-school and anti-school subcultures

Pro-school subculture

• Supports school values

• Encourages:

  • Hard work

  • Academic success

Anti-school subculture

• Rejects school authority

• May involve:

  • Truancy

  • Disruptive behaviour

  • Resistance to teachers

Examples

• Tony Sewell

  • Studied African Caribbean boys

  • Found some formed anti-school “rebels”

  • Linked to experiences of racism

• Mac an Ghaill (“Black sisters”)

  • Minority ethnic girls

  • Criticised school system but still succeeded academically

  • Shows subcultures are not always purely anti-education

VIII. Labelling theory

Definition

• Labelling theory – behaviour and achievement influenced by labels given by others (especially teachers)

Key ideas

• Teachers may:

  • Label ethnic minority learners as low ability or disruptive

  • Base judgement on stereotypes, not ability

Effects

• Self-fulfilling prophecy

  • Low expectations → low achievement

• Master status

  • Label becomes main identity (e.g. “troublemaker”)

• Learners may:

  • Accept label

  • Or reject it and resist authority

Peer labelling

• Peers can also label students (e.g. “geek”)

• This can:

  • Pressure learners to stop working hard

  • Affect identity and achievement

Unequal expectations

• Example: Chinese learners (Archer study)

  • High expectations from teachers

  • Less support offered because success is assumed

  • Shows labelling can also disadvantage “successful” groups in different ways

Patterns and explanations for differences in educational achievement and experience based on gender

Gender and educational achievement

• Gender differences in education exist in most countries.

• Patterns have changed over time:

  • Historically:

    • Boys had more access to education

    • Girls often left early for marriage or domestic roles

  • Modern societies (e.g. UK):

    • Girls now often outperform boys at GCSE level

• Gender inequality is now studied through questions like:

  • Why are girls doing better?

  • Why are boys underachieving?

  • How have expectations changed over time?

I. Differential gendered socialisation and social control

Gender socialisation

• Gender socialisation – learning gender roles and expectations from society

• From early childhood:

  • Girls → expected to become mothers/wives

  • Boys → expected to become workers/providers

Effects on education (traditional view)

• Girls may:

  • See education as less important

  • Expect shorter working lives

• Boys may:

  • See education as necessary for future employment

Changing patterns (modern societies)

• More women now have career aspirations

• Girls are more motivated due to:

  • Increased job opportunities

  • Female role models

• Education now seen as important for both genders

Economic changes

• Decline in manual male jobs (e.g. mining, engineering)

• Rise of knowledge-based jobs

  • ICT, business, finance

• Boys may underachieve in some contexts if:

  • They believe qualifications are not needed for future jobs

Gender and subject choice

• Gender socialisation affects subject selection

• Boys more likely to choose:

  • Maths, physics, computing

  • Careers: engineering, IT, finance

• Girls more likely to choose:

  • Humanities (history, sociology, literature)

  • Careers: teaching, nursing, caring professions

II. Teacher expectations

• Teachers may treat boys and girls differently:

  • Boys’ poor behaviour seen as “normal”

  • Girls expected to be well-behaved and hardworking

• Gender stereotypes influence expectations:

  • Boys → dominant, disruptive

  • Girls → quiet, organised

• Some teachers may also:

  • Have lower expectations of girls’ ability

  • Or fail to encourage them in some subjects

III. Cultural and social factors

Material and cultural factors

• Less relevant than class/ethnicity, but still important in some cases:

  • Limited family resources may prioritise boys’ education over girls’

Gender differences in achievement

• Girls often:

  • Work more consistently

  • Spend more time on homework

  • Are more organised

  • Perform better in coursework/continuous assessment

• Boys often:

  • Do better in exams requiring short-term revision

Explanations for differences

• Girls may:

  • Mature earlier

  • Take education more seriously earlier

• Boys may:

  • Be overconfident

  • Underestimate need for effort

• Peer pressure:

  • Girls → encourage hard work

  • Boys → discourage effort (linked to masculinity norms)

• Some boys (especially working-class):

  • Avoid effort to maintain masculine identity

  • Risk joining anti-school subcultures

Subject interest differences

• Boys may prefer active/practical learning

• Reading is often seen as a female activity

• Early socialisation (e.g. mothers reading to children) reinforces this

IV. Access to education

• In some countries:

  • Girls have less access to schooling

  • Girls leave education earlier

• Causes:

  • Financial constraints

  • Cultural traditions

• (Linked to global inequality in education)

V. In-school factors

Hidden curriculum

• Schools send gender messages through organisation:

  • Separate boys/girls registers

  • Gender-based seating

  • Different uniforms

Subject bias

• Some subjects seen as gendered:

  • Science/technology → male-dominated

  • Dance/domestic subjects → female-dominated

Representation in schools

• Textbooks may show:

  • More male scientists/engineers

• Teaching staff:

  • More female teachers overall

  • But senior roles often male-dominated

Effect on learners

• Girls may feel:

  • Some subjects are “not for them”

• Boys may avoid:

  • Subjects seen as feminine

Policy changes

• Many schools now promote:

  • Equal opportunities

  • Gender-neutral career advice

• Programs encourage girls into:

  • STEM subjects

Peer groups and subcultures

• Peer groups influence achievement:

  • Female peer groups → more pro-school, supportive of learning

  • Male peer groups → more likely to form anti-school subcultures

Masculinity and status

• Some boys value:

  • Peer respect over academic success

• Academic achievement may be seen as:

  • “Uncool” or feminine

• Result:

  • Disruption, underachievement

Changing behaviour (Jackson)

• Some working-class girls:

  • Show “masculine” behaviours (e.g. aggression)

• Explanation:

  • Resistance to pressure to succeed

  • Self-protection from fear of failure

VI. Labelling theory

Gender labelling in schools

• Teachers may label students based on gender:

  • Girls → neat, polite, hardworking

  • Boys → disruptive, creative, problematic

Behaviour patterns

• Boys:

  • More likely to be excluded from school

  • More likely to be labelled as troublemakers

• Girls:

  • Less visible behaviour problems

Effects of labelling

• Self-fulfilling prophecy

  • Labels influence achievement over time

• Boys labelled negatively may:

  • Lose motivation

  • Engage in disruptive behaviour

VII. Feminist explanations

Feminist perspective

• Focus on gender inequality in education and society

• Argue education is still influenced by patriarchy

Key concerns

Even though girls now outperform boys, feminists argue girls still face:

• Lack of confidence in ability

• Male dominance in classrooms

• Less teacher attention

• Gendered subject choices

• Gender bias in teacher expectations

Key idea

• Improvements in girls’ achievement do not mean equality has been achieved

• Education still shapes unequal life chances for women

Global differences in educational achievement

I. Availability of schools

• In many countries, widespread schooling is relatively recent

  • Example: African countries after independence (1950s–60s)

    • Few schools existed

    • Education mainly for colonial elites

• Problems in developing school systems:

  • Lack of money and trained teachers

  • Few teaching materials

Current issues in some countries

• Insufficient number of schools

• Long travel distances (especially rural areas)

• Very large class sizes (often 50+ learners)

Poor school conditions may include:

• No electricity

• No clean drinking water

• No toilets

• Poor ventilation

• Lack of books/resources

• Lack of science equipment

• Few qualified teachers

• Unsafe or insecure buildings

II. Poverty and wealth

Poverty and education

• Many children:

  • Do not attend school

  • Or leave school early

• Reasons:

  • Need to work (farm, family business, household labour)

  • Education costs still exist (uniforms, books, transport)

  • Schooling = lost income for families

Health and poverty link

• Poor health reduces attendance:

  • Malaria and other diseases cause frequent absence

• Poor living conditions:

  • No electricity → cannot study at night

  • Limited study space/resources

Wealth advantages

• Wealthy families can:

  • Pay for private tutoring

  • Provide extra learning resources

• Leads to higher achievement regardless of ability

III. Access to education for girls

Gender inequality in global education

• In many developing countries:

  • Boys more likely to attend school than girls

• Reasons:

  • Sons seen as future breadwinners

  • Daughters expected to marry and leave family

  • Families prioritise education of boys when money is limited

School barriers for girls

• Lack of facilities:

  • About 1 in 3 African schools has no toilets

• Menstruation issues:

  • Girls may miss school due to lack of sanitation and privacy

Global efforts

• UN promotes education as a human right

• Sustainable Development Goal:

  • Universal literacy and numeracy by 2030

• Problem:

  • ~129 million girls worldwide still not in school (UNESCO estimate)

Benefits of educating girls

• Improved:

  • Family health and nutrition

  • Living standards

• Later marriage

• Fewer and healthier children

• Higher income and employment opportunities

IV. Variations in class sizes

• Smaller classes → generally higher achievement

• Large classes reduce:

  • Teacher attention

  • Individual support

Global differences

• Industrialised countries:

  • Around 25–30 students per class

• Developing countries:

  • Often 70+ students per class (e.g. Malawi, Tanzania)

Effects

• Poor start to education (especially in early years)

• Overcrowding → less effective learning

V. Norms, values and cultural differences

• Schooling is not universally seen as important

• Some communities:

  • Do not value formal education highly

  • May have parents who had no schooling themselves

Impact on achievement

• Low value placed on education → low attendance or motivation

• High value placed on education:

  • Seen as route out of poverty

  • Leads to higher participation and achievement

VI. Access to internet and digital resources

Digital divide

• Schools vary greatly in:

  • Internet access

  • Availability of computers

  • Electricity supply

COVID-19 impact

• Highlighted global inequality in education

• Created a “Covid Generation” concern

Strengths and limitations of explanations for differences in educational achievement

Key idea

• No single explanation fully explains global educational inequality

• Factors interact and vary across contexts

Interaction of factors

• Social class, ethnicity, and gender overlap:

  • Working-class groups often overlap with ethnic minorities

• Gender differences vary by class:

  • Working-class girls may underachieve compared to middle-class girls

Key conclusion

• Social class is often the strongest factor globally

  • Poor countries and poor families tend to have lowest achievement

• However:

  • Education systems vary between countries

  • No universal pattern applies everywhere