Contract Theory and Political Philosophy Midterm Study Guide

(SC1) Morality as Mutual Advantage: This form of contract theory, associated with Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, views moral and political obligations as arising from the rational self-interest of individuals. The primary purpose of the contract is to provide a framework where individuals can pursue their own goals more effectively than they could in a state of nature.
(SC2) Morality as Impartiality: Associated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant, this form of contract theory suggests that social and moral rules are justified only if they represent an impartial standpoint. It emphasizes the fair treatment of all individuals regardless of their specific interests or power.

The four major normative theories ground their political and moral principles in distinct sources of authority:
- Thomas Hobbes: The principles are grounded in the will of a political sovereign to maintain order.
- John Locke: The principles are grounded in the will of the divinity, specifically the "law of nature."
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau: The principles are grounded in the general will of a culturally homogeneous community.
- Immanuel Kant: The principles are grounded in respect for "rational nature" and the requirement for universal consistency/autonomous endorsement.

Causes of Quarrel: Hobbes identifies three primary motivations for conflict among human beings in the absence of a common power:
- Gain: Violence used to master other people, their wives, children, and cattle, or to acquire resources.
- Safety: Violence used for the defense of oneself and one's family.
- Reputation: Violence used to assert standing or status in a hierarchy, often triggered by trifles like a word, a smile, or a difference in opinion.
The Foole: This is the figure of the "free rider." The foole believes that if it is to their advantage to break a covenant and they can get away with it, they should do so. Hobbes argues the foole is mistaken because such behavior undermines the collective projects and security enforced by the sovereign.
Collective Action Problems: These occur when individuals, acting in their own rational self-interest, arrive at a sub-optimal result for everyone. For example, if everyone chooses not to contribute to a common resource thinking others will cover it, the resource vanishes, leaving everyone worse off than if they had cooperated.

Sovereignty: Defined as the supremacy of power and authority within a given political jurisdiction.
Arguments for Absolute Power:
- Semantic Argument: The very word "Sovereign" implies absolute power; to suggest a sovereign could be subject to another authority or the law is a logical contradiction.
- Regress Argument: There must be a final, highest authority to settle disputes. If there were another power above the sovereign, then that power would be the true sovereign. To avoid an infinite regress of appeals, a final authority must exist.
- Dissolution Argument: Without unchallengeable, absolute power, society is prone to disintegration. Divided power leads to civil war, which is the ultimate evil for Hobbes.
- Contractual Argument: Because the subjects unanimously established the sovereign through the initial contract, any complaint against the sovereign's actions is effectively a complaint against their own choice.
Limits of Sovereign Power: Despite his advocacy for absolute power, Hobbes notes that individuals do not transfer the right to be protected from radical insecurity. If the sovereign fails to protect a subject's life or actively turns on them, the subject retains the natural right to resist or defend themselves.

Purpose of Civil Society: Locke argues that civil society is established to protect the "rational" (those who understand and follow the law of nature) from the "irrational" (those who cannot or will not). It provides a formal, impartial authority to settle disputes that would otherwise lead to endless cycles of retribution.
Consent to Government:
- Explicit Consent: The initial, verbal, or written agreement that establishes the political contract.
- Tacit Consent: Implied consent given by any individual who physically remains within the territory of a government, participates in its systems, or benefits from its protections and infrastructure.
Self-Ownership and Labor: Locke’s self-ownership argument posits that every individual has exclusive ownership of their own body and the labor it performs. When an individual mixes their labor with an object in the "commons" (e.g., picking an apple or tilling a field), they extract that item into their private possession.
Possessive Individualism: This theory views the individual as the sole proprietor of their own person and capacities, owing nothing to society. Freedom is defined as independence from the wills of others.

Morality’s Bindingness: This concerns why moral principles apply to an agent. It asks if the mere knowledge that a principle applies is sufficient to motivate an agent to follow it, or if external incentives (like punishment) are required.
Deontic Constraint: These are moral duties or prescriptions that constrain an individual's personal preferences or desires. They act as