Nursing 101 Study Guide Notes

Medical Terminology

• Air: Pneumo
• Chest: Thoracic, Thorax, Thoraco
• Ear: Auricle, Oto
• Eye: Ocular, Oculo, Ophtalmo
• Kidney: Renal, Nephric, Nephro
• Liver: Hepatic, Hepato
• Heart: Carium, Cardiac, Cardio
• Blood: Hem, Hemo, Hemat
• Lungs: Pulmonary, Pulmonic
• Intestines: Cecum, Colon, Duodenum, Ileum
• Mouth: Oral, Os, Stoma, Stomat
• Skin: Derma, Integument
• Stomach: Gastric, Gastro
• Testicle: Orcho, Orchi, Orchido
• Uterus: Hystero, Metra
• Neoplastic
• Mono: One
• Brady: Slow
• Tachy: Fast

Fundamentals Overview

• Vasopressor: Medication to increase blood pressure in critically ill patients.
• Ethryo: Red
• Pnea: Lack of or too low
• Ostomy: To create an opening
• Arthro: Joints or articulations
• Blast: Immature, Embryonic
• Itis: Inflammation
• Algia: Pain
• Plegia: Paralysis
• Pnea: Breathing
• Cyano: Blue skin
• Leuko: White blood cells

Nursing Pioneers

• Dorothea Dix: Advocated for the mentally ill; pushed for asylum reform.
• Clara Barton: Founder of the American Red Cross; self-taught nurse who served during the Civil War.
• Lavina Dock: Wrote the first nursing textbook; editor of the American Journal of Nursing.
• Linda Richards: First trained nurse in America; accredited for the system we have today.
• Mary Breckinridge: Pioneer for nurse midwives; delivered obstetrics care to women in Kentucky.
• Mary Eliza Mahoney: First African American trained nurse.
• Isabel Hampton Robb: Founder of nursing theory; introduced standards for nurses.
• Florence Nightingale: Founder of modern nursing; impacted nursing education and started the first school at Saint Thomas hospital in London. The training program lasted for a year and called it the “Nightingale plan”

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Top to Bottom)

• Self-actualization: Morality, creativity, acceptance
• Esteem: Confidence, respect, achievement
• Love/belonging: Friendships, family, connection
• Safety: Property, family, stability
• Physiological: Breathing, food, water

Basic Life Support

• Three sets of 30 compressions with 2 breaths
• If no shock continue CPR and check pulse every two minutes
• If patient is pregnant move baby to the left
• Position victim face up on a flat surface
• Compression to ventilation ratio: 30 compressions to 2 breaths
• Compression rate: 100 to 120 / min rate is the same for all victims
• Compression depth: At least two inches
• Chest recoil: Allow chest to recoil completely after compression

Steps for Emergency Assessment

• Scan for safety
• Check for carotid pulse towards you
• Call for help / AED and check if chest is rising/ falling
• Start chest compressions if there are no signs of response or signs of cardiac arrest (apneic breathing)
• Rescue breath every six seconds and two min pulse check

Nursing Process

• Assessment: Gather information through subjective and objective data.
• Diagnosis: Identifying the current problem.
• Planning: SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Timely) goals to solve problem
• Implementation: Put plan into action aka “nursing interventions”.
• Evaluation: Determine outcomes of a goal and evaluate effectiveness.
• AVOID ABSOLUTES LIKE ALWAYS OR NEVER!
• SAFETY IS THE ONLY ABSOLUTE

Immunity

• Overview: The immune system is made up of organs, blood cells, antibodies, and chemicals that protect the body and its cells from foreign invaders that cause infection.

Pulse Assessment

• Pulses: Temporal, Carotid, Brachial, Radial, Femoral, Popliteal, Dorsalis Pedis
• Grading Scale:
  • 0: Not palpable
  • 1: Difficult to palpate, thready and weak
  • 2: Difficult to palpate
  • 3: Easy to palpate/normal
  • 4: Strong, bounded

Vital Signs

• Vital Signs: Temperature, Pulse, Blood pressure, Respiration, O_2, and pain
• PAIN: HILDA
  • H: How would you describe the pain
  • I: Intensity
  • L: Location
  • D: Duration
  • A: Alleviating factors
• Areas for listening to the heart: Aortic, Pulmonic, ERB’S Point, Tricuspid, Mitral (ALL PEOPLE ENJOY TIME MAGAZINE)

Immune System Components

• Thymus
• Spleen
• Appendix
• Bone marrow
• Tonsils
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes

Types of Leukocytes (WBCs)

• Neutrophils: First cells that respond to foreign organisms. Boosts response of other immune cells.
• Basophils: Defend against allergens, parasites, and pathogens. They release leukotrienes (allergy response), cytokines (immune regulator), histamines (inflammatory response).
• Eosinophils: Defends against parasitic and bacterial infections and regulates inflammatory response.
• Lymphocytes: Produce antibodies and directly attack invaders
  • B-cells: Create antibodies and attack invaders and abnormal cells.
  • T-cells: Directly attack infected foreign cells and stimulate b-cells to make antibodies
• Monocytes: Surround, ingest, kill, and remove foreign substances
• Dendritic cells: Initiate and regulate immune response by communicating to other cells.
• Macrophages: Surround and kill foreign cells “eat”.

Diseases

• Pertussis (Whooping Cough): Bacterial infection causing severe coughing fits, easily spread through coughing or sneezing, and dangerous for babies.
  • Symptoms: Runny nose, mild fever, mild cough initially, then worsening cough with long fits, "whooping" sound after coughing, vomiting.
• Mononucleosis: Viral infection caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), spread through saliva.
  • Symptoms: Fatigue, fever, sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, headache, body aches.
• Measles (Rubeola): Highly contagious viral infection, spread through coughing, sneezing, or close contact.
  • Symptoms: High fever, runny nose, cough, red watery eyes, Koplik spots (white spots inside the mouth), red blotchy skin rash.
• Roseola (Sixth Disease): Common viral infection in babies and young children, caused by herpes virus.
  • Symptoms: Sudden high fever lasting 3–5 days, pinkish-red rash after fever, mild cough, runny nose, irritability, swollen eyelids, mild diarrhea.
• Fifth Disease (Slapped Cheek): Mild viral infection caused by parvovirus B19.
  • Symptoms: Mild fever, runny nose, headache, bright red cheeks, light pink rash on the body and arms.
• Scarlet Fever: Bacterial infection caused by group A Streptococcus, usually affects children.
  • Symptoms: Sudden high fever, sore throat, red rough rash, red swollen tongue, flushed face with pale skin around the mouth.
• Mumps: Viral infection causing swelling of salivary glands, spread through saliva.
  • Symptoms: Swelling and pain in cheeks or jaw, fever, headache, muscle aches, fatigue, loss of appetite.
• Reye’s Syndrome: Rare but serious condition, affects children and teenagers after viral infections like flu or chickenpox.
  • Symptoms: Sudden confusion, vomiting, seizures, loss of consciousness, rapid breathing.
• Hand Foot Mouth Disease: Infection caused by enteroviruses.
  • Symptoms: Mild fever (101-103), fatigue, sore throat, bumps blisters and flat red spots on the palms of the hands inside of mouth and sole of the feets.
• Lyme Disease: Illness from tick bites carrying bacteria.
  • Symptoms: Early stage (days to weeks): red rash often shaped like a “bull’s-eye”, fever, chills, headache, muscle and joint aches, feeling very tired.
  • Later stage (weeks to months): more rashes, stiff neck, joint pain and swelling, nerve problems, heart problems

Pharmacology

• Penicillins (Penicillin, Amoxicillin): Antibiotics to treat infections.
• Cephalosporins (Cefdinir, Cephalexin, Cefazolin Sodium): Beta-lactam antibiotics that lead to cell death.
• Vancomycin: Antibiotic to treat serious bacterial infections like C-diff and MRSA.
• Tetracyclines (Doxycycline, Minocycline, Tetracycline): Antibiotics to treat Gram bacteria used for STI, Lyme disease, pneumonia.
• Corticosteroids Systemic (Betamethasone, Prednisone, Hydrocortisone, Cortisone, Methylprednisolone): Used to treat inflammation, autoimmune conditions, and allergic reactions like Gout, Rheumatoid arthritis, and COPD.

Endocrine Diseases

• Addison’s Disease: Adrenal glands don’t make enough cortisol and sometimes aldosterone.
  • Symptoms: Fatigue, weak muscles, loss of appetite and weight loss, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, craving salty foods.
  • Treatment: Hormone replacement pills, extra doses during stress or illness.
• Cushing’s Disease: Body makes too much cortisol.
  • Symptoms: Weight gain (belly, face, upper back), thin arms and legs, weak muscles, fragile skin, purple stretch marks, high blood pressure.
  • Treatment: Surgery to remove pituitary tumor, radiation or medicines if surgery ineffective, slowly lower steroid dose if caused by steroid medications.
• Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome (HHNS): Serious condition in type 2 diabetes, extremely high blood sugar.
  • Symptoms: Extremely high blood sugar, very thirsty, frequent urination then very little urine, dry mouth, dry skin, weakness, confusion, drowsiness.
  • Treatment: Emergency hospital treatment, IV fluids, insulin, treatment of underlying cause.
• Hyperglycemia: High blood sugar.
  • Symptoms: Very thirsty, frequent urination, feeling very tired, blurry vision, headache, dry mouth, unexplained weight loss.
• Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar (below 70 mg/dL).
  • Symptoms: Shaky, sweating, very hungry, fast heartbeat, anxious, dizzy, headache, blurry vision.
• Diabetic Ketoacidosis: Body breaks down fat for energy due to lack of insulin, ketones build up in blood.
  • Symptoms: Very high blood sugar, very thirsty, frequent urination, dry mouth and dry skin, nausea, vomiting, deep, fast breathing, fatigue.
• Diabetes Insipidus: Body loses too much water due to inability to control urination.
  • Symptoms: Frequent urination (even at night), very thirsty, clear watery urine, dehydration.
  • Treatment: Desmopressin (DDAVP), drinking enough fluids, adjusting diet or using diuretics.
• Growth Deficiency Hormone (GHD): Body doesn't make enough growth hormone.
  • Symptoms: Slower growth, younger-looking features, delayed development of teeth, poor muscle tone, poor stamina.
  • Treatment: Growth hormone injections.
• Syndrome of Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH): Body makes too much antidiuretic hormone (ADH), causing body to hold onto too much water and lower the level of sodium in the blood (called hyponatremia).
  • Symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, headache, confusion, muscle cramps, weakness, restlessness, irritability, seizures or coma.
  • Treatment: Limit fluid intake, sometimes give salt tablets or salty fluids through an IV, Medicines (like tolvaptan) to help remove extra water
• Diabetes:
  • Type 1: Immune system attacks cells in the pancreas that make insulin.
    • Symptoms: Feeling very thirsty, Peeing a lot, Feeling very hungry, Weight loss without trying, Feeling very tired, Blurry vision
  • Type 2: Body still makes insulin but doesn’t use it well and may not make enough over time.
    • Symptoms: Increased thirst and peeing, Tiredness, Blurry vision, Slow-healing wounds, Tingling or numbness in hands/feet

Pharmacology

• Thyroid Hormone Agonists (Levothyroxine, liothyronine): Mimics the natural thyroid hormone to treat low thyroid levels and aids in fat loss or metabolic condition.
• Antithyroid Products (Methimazole, Propylthiouracil): To slow down or stop the production of the thyroid hormone used for hyperthyroidism.
• Non-Insulin Antidiabetics Meglitinides (Nateglinide, Repaglinide): Helps lower blood sugar by telling the pancreas to quickly release insulin after meals.
• Non-Insulin Antidiabetic Biguanides (Metformin): Lowers blood sugar by reducing how much sugar the liver makes and helps the body use insulin better. First treatment of choice
• Insulin Rapid Acting (Lispro, Aspart): Lowers blood sugar within 15 minutes and lasts a few hours
• Insulin Short Acting (Regular, Humulin R, Novolin R): Lowers blood sugar after meals. Starts working after 30 min and lasts for several hours.
• Insulin Intermediate Acting (NPH, Humulin N, Novolin N): Lowers blood sugar levels over a longer period 12 to 18 hours. Basal control for in between meals and overnight.
• Insulin Long Acting (Glargine, Detemir): Provides steady release over 24 hours or more and keeps blood sugar levels stable for a full day.

Gastrointestinal Overview

• Order of assessment: Inspection, Auscultation, Percussion, Palpation

Accessory Organs

• Liver: Metabolism of fats detoxification, regulates blood sugar & regulates blood clotting
• Pancreas: Secretes glucagon and insulin & secretes enzymes to break down food (Lipase// Fats, Amylase// Carbs, Protease/// Proteins )
• Gallbladder: Stores bile produced by the liver, digests fatty foods, absorbs fat soluble vitamins, and carries waste out of the liver

Digestion Process

• Ingestion: Consuming orally
• Propulsion: Movement of food in the digestive tract
• Digestion: Breakdown of food
• Absorption: Products of digestion are absorbed by the blood to be supplied to body
• Defecation: Elimination of undigested material

Gastrointestinal Diseases

• Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder
  • Symptoms: Jaundice, Clay-colored stool, Dark colored urine, Elevated AST/ALT & bilirubin
• Pancreatitis: Inflammation of the pancreas
  • Symptoms: Abdominal pain, Dark urine, Unintended weight loss, Steatorrhea ( fatty stool )
• Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBS): Condition that a ects how the gut (intestines) works. It’s a long-term problem, but it doesn’t damage the bowel or lead to serious disease.
  • Symptoms: Belly pain or cramps (often relieved by going to the bathroom), Bloating or feeling gassy, Diarrhea, constipation, or sometimes switching between both, Mucus in the stool
• Crohn’s: Long-term condition where parts of the digestive tract become inflamed and irritated. It’s an autoimmune disease, meaning the immune system mistakenly attacks the gut.
  • Symptoms: Belly pain or cramps, Diarrhea (sometimes with blood), Weight loss, Feeling very tired, Poor appetite, Sometimes fever or mouth sores
• Diverticulosis: Formation of multiple hollow pouches through the colon
  • Symptoms: Bloating, cramping, Changes in bowel patterns ( Diarrhea or Constipation )
• Diverticulitis: Complication of diverticulosis where pouches become inflamed undigested food or stool gets trapped in pouches
  • Symptoms: Bloating, Bloody stool, Severe LLQ pain, Nausea/ Vomiting, Fever/ Chills
• Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver
  • TYPES: A (Fecal- oral route) , B ( Blood and body fluids), C ( Blood and body fluids, Most common among IV drug use), D ( Occurs in conjunction with Hep B) , E ( Fecal- oral route )
• Cirrhosis: Healthy liver cells are replaced with scar tissue, built up tissue prevents the liver from functioning normally. Known as “END STAGE LIVER DISEASE”
  • Early signs: Decreased appetite, Fatigue, Nausea/ Vomiting, Abdominal pain
  • Late signs: Jaundice, Ascites, Edema, Anemia, Clay-colored stool, Bleeding and easily bruised, Pruritus (Itchy skin)
• Bowel Obstruction: Physical blockage in bowel preventing movement
  • TYPES OF OBSTRUCTION: Hernia: Portion of intestine protrudes into other part of body, Volvulus: Intestine twists around itself , Intussusception: Part of bowel telescopes into adjacent segment , Adhesions: Bands of scar tissue form between bowel loops
  • Symptoms: Nausea/ Vomiting, Metabolic alkalosis
• Peptic Ulcer disease: Open sores (ulcers) that form in the lining of your stomach or the upper part of your small intestine.
  • Symptoms: Burning or gnawing pain in the upper belly (often between meals or at night), Feeling full or bloated, Nausea or sometimes vomiting, Heartburn or indigestion
• Celiac Disease: Where the body’s immune system reacts badly to gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye. When people with celiac disease eat gluten, it damages the small intestine and makes it hard to absorb nutrients from food.
  • Symptoms: Stomach pain or bloating, Diarrhea or constipation, Weight loss or poor growth (in children), Tiredness, Skin rash (called dermatitis herpetiformis), Mouth sores or tooth problem
• Appendicitis: When the appendix, a small, finger-shaped pouch in the lower right side of the belly, becomes inflamed and infected. If not treated, it can burst, which can be very dangerous.
  • Symptoms: Pain near the belly button that moves to the lower right side, Pain that gets worse over time, Fever, Loss of appetite, Nausea or vomiting

Child Communicable Diseases:

• Pyloric Stenosis: Condition in babies where the opening between the stomach and the small intestine (called the pylorus) becomes too narrow because the muscle thickens.
  • Symptoms: Forceful vomiting (often called “projectile vomiting”) after feeding, Baby still seems hungry after vomiting, Weight loss or poor weight gain, Fewer wet diapers (due to dehydration)
• Diphtheria: Serious bacterial infection that mainly a ects the throat and nose. It spreads from person to person through coughing, sneezing, or touching infected things.
  • Symptoms: Sore throat and pain when swallowing, Fever, Weakness, Swollen neck (sometimes called a “bull neck”)

Gastrointestinal Pharmacology

• Antiemetics Antivertigo Agents (Ondansetron, Promethazine, Meclizine, Metoclopramide): To treat and prevent nausea, vomiting, and vertigo.
• Proton Pump Inhibitors (Esomeprazole, Lansoprazole, Omeprazole, Pantoprazole): Reduces stomach acid production for peptic ulcers, heartburn, GERD, and Zollinger-ellison syndrome.
• Cytoprotective Drugs (Sucralfate, Misoprostol): Increases mucus to protect the lining of the GI tract against harmful agents.
• Antidiarrheals (Diphenoxylate, Atropine, Loperamide): Slows digestion reducing fluid loss and improves absorption.
• Laxatives (Senna, Lactulose, Linsclotide, Methylcellulose): To promote bowel movements and treat constipation.

Musculoskeletal Overview

• Function: Support, protect, movement, mineral storage, and hematopoiesis

Musculoskeletal Image Testing

• X-ray: Produces images with ionizing radiation used to diagnose for bone fractures, arthritis, osteoporosis, infections, breast cancer, swallowed items, digestive tract problems.
• CT scan: Series of x-rays to create cross sections of the body including bones, blood vessels, and soft tissues. Used to diagnose injuries from trauma, bone fractures, tumors and cancers, vascular disease, heart disease, infections, used to guide biopsies.
• MRI: Magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of organs and tissues. Used to diagnose aneurysms, Multiple sclerosis, stroke, spinal cord disorders, tumors, blood vessels issues, joint or tendon injuries
• Ultrasound: Uses high frequency sound waves to produce images of organs and structures within the body. Used to diagnose gallbladder disease, breast lumps, genital/ prostate issues, joint inflammation, blood flow problems, monitoring pregnancy, used to guide biopsies.
• Pet scans: Uses radioactive drugs called “tracers” and a scanning machine to show how your tissues and organs are functioning. Used to diagnose cancer, heart disease, coronary artery disease, alzheimers, seizures, epilepsy, parkinson's disease

Musculoskeletal Assessment and System Overview

• 206 bones in the human body and over 600 muscles
• Axial Skeleton: “We have one” (Skull, Spine, Rib cage, Sternum)
• Appendicular Skeleton: “We have two” (Upper limbs, lower limbs, shoulder girdles, Pelvic girdles)
• RICE: R( Rest), I(Ice), C( Compression), E(Elevation)
• Breakthrough Pain: Sudden or brief flare up of pain even if managing pain with medication during flare up the pain becomes severe enough to break through.
• Tendon: Connects muscle to bone
• Ligament: Connects bone to bone
• Cartilage: Covers end of bone (Shock absorber )
  • Strain: Injury to tendon or muscle
  • Sprain: Injury to ligament

Types of Bone Marrow

• Red bone marrow: Site of blood cells (RBC and WBC) and platelet development. FOUND in spongy bone at the end of bones
• Yellow bone marrow: Site of fat storage. FOUND in long bones surrounded by red bone marrow.

Musculoskeletal Pharmacology

• Bone disorder Medication:
  • Calcium Supplement: Maintains healthy bones and regulates many other cellular functions in your body. You cannot have calcium without vitamin D.
    • Calcium Citrate
    • Calcium carbonate
    • Calcium acetate
    • Calcium chloride
    • Used for hypocalcemia, deficiencies of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D or dietary calcium.
    • NO CALCIUM WITH STEROIDS!
  • Vitamin D supplement
• Bisphosphonates:
  • Alendronate
  • Ibandronate
  • Risedronate
    • Decrease the number of actions of osteoclasts (breakdown damaged bone cells) and inhibit bone reabsorption.
    • Used for prophylaxis and treatment of osteoporosis TAKE ON EMPTY STOMACH AND WITH 8 OZ OF WATER!
• Medication for pain and inflammation:
  • Nonopioid analgesics
    • Tylenol
    • Acetaminophen
    • NSAIDS (Aspirin, Ibuprofen, Ketorolac, nabumetone, naproxen)
    • Used for inflammation suppression, analgesia, mild to moderate pain, fever reduction. CANNOT LAYER NSAIDS EX: TYLENOL + IBUPROFEN TYLENOL= LIVER DAMAGE IF USED TOO MUCH
• Opioids
  • Agonists: Fentanyl, Meperidine, Methadone, Codeine, Oxycodone, Hydromorphone CAUTION IN PATIENTS WITH IBS, ENLARGED PROSTATE, HEPATIC OR KIDNEY DISEASE, ASTHMA
  • Agonists-Antagonists: Butorphanol, Stadol, Torbutrol, Dorolex, Torbugesic CAUTION IN PATIENTS WITH KIDNEY DISEASE
  • Antagonists: Naloxone, Narcan (Reverses)
• Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs (DMARDS)
  • DMARDS 1 (Major Nonbiologic): Methotrexate, sulfasalazine, hydroxychloroquine, leflunomide
  • DMARDS 2 (Major Biologic): Etanercept, infliximab, rituximab
  • DMARDS 3 (Minor Nonbiologic): Gold salts, cyclosporine, minocycline AFFECTS THE LIVER
• Anti-Inflammatory: Glucocorticoids
  • Prednisone, Methylprednisolone, Budesonide, Hydrocortisone, Fluticasone
  • Used for inflammation and to reduce edema

Musculoskeletal Diseases (childhood)

• Hip Dysplasia: Condition where the hip joint doesn’t fit together properly. The hip is a ball-and-socket joint, the socket is too shallow or the ball isn’t held tightly, so the hip can become loose or dislocated.
  • Treatment:
    • In babies: A soft brace called a Pavlik harness is often used to hold the hip in place while it develops properly.
    • In young children: If the brace doesn’t work or if the child is older, they may need a procedure to move the hip into place, sometimes followed by a cast.
    • In teens or adults: Surgery may be needed to reshape the hip or even replace the joint if arthritis has developed.
• Cerebral Palsy: Condition that a ects movement, muscle control, and balance. It happens because of damage to the brain, usually before, during, or shortly after birth.
  • Treatment: Medicines — to relax sti muscles, Braces or splints — to help with walking or positioning, Sometimes surgery — to correct muscle or bone problems
• Muscular Dystrophy: Inherited conditions that cause the muscles to become weaker over time. It happens because of a problem in the genes that help keep muscles healthy. As a result, the muscles slowly break down and get weaker.
  • Treatment: Medicines — like steroids to slow muscle weakening, Braces or wheelchairs — to support movement, Breathing support — if breathing muscles get weak, Heart care — for types that a ect the heart
• Congenital Talipes Equinovarus “ClubFoot”:
  *Treatment: Condition where a baby is born with one or both feet twisted in the wrong position. The foot may turn inward, downward, or sometimes the toes point in
• Spina Bifida:
  *Treatment: Stretching and casting (Ponseti method) — the doctor gently stretches the foot and puts it in a cast, changing the cast every week for several weeks, A small procedure — sometimes a minor surgery is done to loosen the tight tendon, Braces — after casting, the baby wears a special brace for months or years to keep the foot in the right position

Musculoskeletal Diseases (Adulthood)

• Compartment Syndrome: Serious condition where too much pressure builds up inside a group of muscles (called a compartment), usually in the arms or legs.
  • Treatment: Emergency surgery (fasciotomy) — the doctor makes cuts in the skin and muscle covering to relieve the pressure and save the muscle.
• Fractures: Broken bones that can mean a small crack or a complete break in the bone. Fractures usually happen from a fall, accident, or strong hit.
  • Treatment: Splint or cast — to keep the bone in place while it heals Sometimes surgery — if the bone is badly broken or out of place, metal plates, screws, or rods may be used
• Gout: Happens because uric acid crystals build up in the joint, causing pain, redness, and swelling. Uric acid is a normal waste product in the body, but when there’s too much, it can form sharp crystals in the joints.
  • Treatment: Medicines for pain and swelling — like NSAIDs (e.g., ibuprofen), colchicine, or steroids, Medicines to lower uric acid — for people who get frequent attacks (like allopurinol).
• Osteoarthritis: Common type of arthritis where the cartilage (the smooth cushion between bones) slowly wears down.
  • Treatment: Weight loss — if overweight, to take pressure o joints, Braces or supports — for joint protection, Joint injections — like steroids to reduce pain and swelling, Surgery (if severe) — such as joint replacement
• Rheumatoid Arthritis: Long-term disease where the immune system (which normally fights germs) mistakenly attacks the joints.
  • Treatment: Medicines — to reduce inflammation and slow the disease (like methotrexate, biologics, or steroids), Pain relievers — like NSAIDs (ibuprofen) to ease pain and swelling, Physical and occupational therapy — to keep joints flexible and improve daily function
• Osteomyelitis: Infection in a bone. It can happen when bacteria (or sometimes fungi) get into the bone, usually through the bloodstream, an injury, or after surgery.
  • Treatment: Antibiotics (or antifungal medicines) — usually given through a vein (IV) at first, then by mouth, Surgery (if needed) — to clean out infected or dead bone, Rest and care of theat fected area sometimes using a splint or cast
• Osteoporosis: Condition where the bones become weak and thin, making them more likely to break — even from a small fall or bump.
  • Treatment: Medicines — like bisphosphonates to slow bone loss and make bones stronger, Calcium and vitamin D , to support bone health.

Cancer Overview

• Cancer is classified by the type of tissue, their biological behavior, the anatomical site and the degree of di erentiation.
• Also classified by either being solid or hematologic

Biology of a Normal Cell

• Solid: A type of cancer that forms a palpable mass of tissue within the body, as opposed to blood cancers which a ect blood cells and do not typically form a solid lump. Solid cells develop from specific tissue.
• Hematologic: A type of cancer classified by type, subtype, and the site where they first appear. The main types of hematologic cancers are leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma. Hematologic cells arise from blood cells.
• Nonmigratory: Cancer stem cells that do not move but can generate migrating cancer stem cells that cause metastasis
• Apoptosis: A type of cell death in which a series of molecular steps in a cell lead to its death.
• Benign: A normal cell growing that stays in their primary location without invading other sites of the body. They do not spread to local structures or to distant parts of the body.

Biology of an Abnormal Cell

• Malignant: A cancerous growth that has the potential to spread to other parts of the body, cells that divide rapidly and abnormally. Harmful to normal tissues
• Anaplasia: Cells losing their specialized characteristics and taking traits similar to embryonic cells.
• Loose adherence: Loss of a cell adhesion that can lead to increased cell mobility and metastasis (Spreading to other parts of the body).
• Migration: The process by which cancer cells move away from a tumor and into surrounding tissues. Allows cells to slip through cell walls.
• Rapid or continuous cell division: Cellular regulation is lost, cancer cells re-enter cell cycle for mitosis almost continuously.
• Abnormal chromosomes-aneuploidy: Chromosomal abnormality that occurs when a cell has an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Cancer Development

• Cancer Grading: Classifies cellular aspects of the cancer, compares cancer cells to normal parent tissue by appearance, and provides information about the probable growth rate of the tumor and its tendency to spread.
  • STAGES:
    • Malignant transformation: The process of changing a normal cell into a cancer cell
    • Steps of carcinogenesis: Carcinogens (A substance/organism or agent that can cause cancer)
      • Initiation: Normal cells lose cellular regulation ( irreversible event that leads to cancer development).
      • Promotion: Enhanced growth, from the promoters stemming from normal body proteins and hormones can act as promoters to that cancer cell.
      • Progression: Continued change; more malignant.
      • Metastasis: Move from primary location and establish remote colonies
      • Wherever a cancer originates is the name of the cancer type. (ex. Breast cancer that spreads to the lungs is still called breast cancer that has metastasized to the lungs.)
• Ploidy: Classifies tumor chromosomes as normal or abnormal. The number of copies of each chromosome an organism carries.
  *Staging (3 Stages): Classifies clinical aspects of the cancer, determines exact location of cancer and degree of metastasis at diagnosis.
• Clinical: Assess the patients symptoms, tumor size, and possible spread
• Surgical: Assess the patient's tumor, size, the number of sites, and spread by surgical inspection.
• Pathologic: ( The most definitive ) This will tell us tumor size, the number of sites and spreads by pathological exam of the tissues that are obtained from surgery.

TNM System (Tumor, Node, Metastasis)

• Used to describe the spread of cancer
• T(Tumor): Describes the size of the original (primary) tumor and whether it has invaded nearby tissue.
• N(Node)Regional lymph nodes: Describes nearby (regional) lymph nodes that are involved.
• M(Metastasis)Distant metastasis: Describes distant metastasis ( Spread of cancer from one part of the body to another )

Cancer Etiology and Genetics

• Three interacting factors influence cancer development
  1. Exposure to carcinogens
  2. Genetic predisposition
  3. Immune function
• These factors account for variation in cancer development from one person to another even when each person is exposed to the same hazards. ( Example: Not everyone who smokes gets lung cancer).
• External factors causing cancer:
  • Chemical carcinogens: Exposures (Tobacco), arsenic, smoke, beverages containing alcohol.
  • Physical carcinogens: Physical agents or events causing DNA damage (Uv rays, X-rays, and other medical imaging tests).
  • Viral carcinogens: Viruses infect cells and alter DNA strands, and viruses insert their genetic material into the cells. (Oncode viruses)
• Dietary factors: Suspected of altering cancer risk
  • Avoid animal fat
  • Eat more bran
  • Minimize intake of red meat
  • Eat more vegetables
  • Minimize alcohol consumption
  • Increase food with vitamin A and C.
• Seven warning signs of cancer (CAUTION)
  • C- Changes in bowel or bladder habits
  • A- A sore that does not heal
  • U- Unusual bleeding or discharge
  • T- Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere
  • I- Indigestion or di culty swallowing
  • O- Obvious change in a wart or mole
  • N- Nagging cough or hoarseness

Genetic Screening in Cancer Prevention

• BRCA1 and BRCA2- Breast

Consequences of Cancer

• Impaired immunity and clotting: When the cancer starts invading the bone marrow reducing healthy production of white blood cells and platelets.
• Altered Gi function: Tumors in the gi tract can increase the metabolic rate in nutrient needs in the disease. Appetite loss, loss of taste, and cachexia( extreme body wasting and malnutrition).
• Altered peripheral nerve function (Brain