Criminology: Individual Theories of Crime

What is Theory?

  • In criminology, a theory is a framework used to explain crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system.

  • Theories are supported or challenged by empirical research and provide a basis for testing hypotheses about crime and its causes.

Types of Theories

  • Micro-Level Theories: Focus on individual-level explanations for criminal behavior.

  • Macro-Level Theories: Focus on societal-level factors that influence crime rates and patterns.

Historical Context

  • Pre-Classical Context (Pre-18th Century):

    • Explanations for crime were rooted in religious/moral frameworks.

    • Arbitrary justice systems with punishments tied to social class.

    • Brutal punishments were common.

  • Classical School (mid 18th-19th C):

    • Key theorists: Cesare Beccaria & Jeremy Bentham.

    • Crime is an outcome of free will and individual choice.

    • Laws applied equally to all citizens.

    • Punishments should deter rational individuals and be proportional to crimes.

  • Positivism: Age of Science (19th Century):

    • Key theorists: Cesare Lombroso, Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim.

    • Crime is explained by individual biological or psychological factors.

    • Scientific methods can identify causes of crime; criminal behavior is determined.

  • Late Modern/Postmodern Individual Theories (20th - 21st Century):

    • Crime is socially contingent and constructed.

    • Focus on power dynamics and how they shape criminalization.

Individual Theories

  • Individual theories reflect criminology’s evolution, rejecting superstition, introducing scientific rigor, and balancing agency with social influences.

Biological Theories

  • Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) – ‘The Born Criminal’:

    • Studied anatomical features to identify a physical criminal type.

    • Theory of Atavism: Criminals are throwbacks (biologically inferior).

  • Twin & Adoption Studies:

    • Investigate genetic and environmental influences on criminal behavior.

    • Christiansen (1977):

      • MZ twins 52% concordance shared criminality.

      • DZ twins 22% concordance shared criminality.

    • Hutchings and Mednick (1974):

      • Adopted boys more likely to commit crimes when their biological fathers had also committed crimes.

  • Biosocial Theories of Crime:

    • Examine the interplay between biological factors and social environments.

    • Interaction of nature (genetics, neurobiology) and nurture (social experiences, environmental influences).

    • Neurotransmitters and Antisocial Behaviour: Glutamate-GABA Imbalance, Serotonin, Dopamine.

    • Adolescent Brain Development: Developmental Imbalances.

Policy Implications of Biological Approaches

  • Policies based upon strictly biological theories raise moral and ethical concerns.

  • Potential for discrimination - racist, sexist, ableist and homophobic policies/practices, e.g. eugenics

  • Biosocial approaches may address crime through specific interventions and treatments.

  • Focus on early life interventions and throughout an individual's life course.

Psychological Theories

  • The Theory of Criminal Personality: Hans Eysenck (1915-1997):

    • Crime results from the interaction between environment and individual psychology.

    • Different personalities are more susceptible to certain crimes.

    • Core Personality Dimensions: Extroversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism.

    • The Big Five: Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to experience.

  • Impulsivity: Gottfredson & Hirshi and Moffitt (1990s):

    • Impulsivity is a key personality feature associated with antisocial behavior.

    • Moffitt (1993) – “Dual Taxonomy”:

      • Adolescent limited offenders: offending starts and ends during adolescence.

      • Life Course Persistent (LCP) offenders: have neuropsychological deficits resulting in an impulsive personality style.

  • Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Self-Control (1990):

    • Focuses on why some people do not offend; self-control is the key factor.

    • Critical period: Ages 8-10 are crucial for developing self-control.

    • Low self-control is characterised by impulsivity, risk-seeking, and short-term thinking.

  • Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura (1925-2021):

    • Behavior is learned socially through observation, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement.

    • Key elements: Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation.

  • Rational Choice Theory: Cornish & Clarke (1986):

    • Individuals are rational actors who make calculated decisions about committing crimes.

    • Offenders weigh potential benefits against costs.

Policy Implications of Psychological Approaches

  • Move beyond punishment to address root causes of criminal behavior.

  • Focus on fixing, personalised help, early intervention, and changing thought patterns.

Summary

  • There is no identifiable "biological criminal type."

  • It's challenging to separate genetic influences (nature) from environmental factors (nurture).

  • Biological factors are part of a “multiple factor” approach in criminology.

  • Psychological theories emphasize learning through social interactions and observational learning.