Comprehensive Study Notes on Classicism in World and Slovak Literature: Moliére and Ján Chalupka
The Essence of Classicism in World Literature and Drama
Classicism in world literature established a strict hierarchy within the dramatic arts. Drama was bifurcated into two primary categories: high genres and low genres. The high genres consisted of tragedy and historical plays, while the low genre was reserved for comedy. In this literary period, authors focused on creating specific character types rather than unique individuals. These characters were representative of certain traits, such as the patriot, the miser, or the hypocrite. This process of typification ensured that characters were typical of their category, unlike the exceptional and one-of-a-kind characters found later in Romanticism.
In the realm of tragedy, Classicism strictly adhered to the three unities, much like ancient Greek drama. These include the unity of place, the unity of action, and the unity of time. These rules dictated that the entire play must occur in a single location, revolve around a single plotline without subplots, and take place within a single span of time, typically limited to hours.
The Life and Significance of Moliére
Moliére is the world's most prominent representative of Classicist comedy. Born with the real name Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, he adopted Moliére as his artistic pseudonym. He was a multifaceted figure who served as an author, actor, and director, dedicating his entire life to the theater. His primary professional ambition was to elevate comedy to a higher artistic level. Despite his legal education, his passion for the stage led him to become a theater director, and he frequently organized performances for the royal family, specifically for King Louis XIV.
Known as a favorite of Paris, Moliére was regarded as a great comedian with the ability to constantly make audiences laugh, supported by his wisdom and temperament. His dedication to his craft was so profound that he died on stage during a performance of his play, "The Imaginary Invalid" (Zdravý-nemocný), in which he was performing the lead role. Throughout his career, he wrote over plays, and currently, of these works have been translated into Slovak and continue to be performed regularly.
Themes and Artistic Methods in Moliére’s Work
Moliére’s plays were often satirical, targeting hypocrisy, the morality of the nobility, and the influence of the church. In his creative process, he relied on two main models: the domestic French farce and the Italian Commedia dell'arte. His focus remained on creating specific types of people, such as the miser, the hypocrite, or the pious fraud (svätuškára). Some of his most famous works include "Tartuffe" (The Hypocrite), "The Misanthrope" (Mizantrop), which focuses on a person who avoids society, "The Bourgeois Gentleman" (Mešťan šľachticom), "School for Wives" (Škola žien), "The Imaginary Invalid" (Zdravý-nemocný), and "The Miser" (Lakomec).
His primary expressive tool was hyperbole, which involves the exaggeration of a specific character trait to achieve a comic or critical effect. He mastered the use of both verbal humor and situational humor to engage and provoke his audience.
Detailed Analysis of "The Miser" (Lakomec)
In the play "The Miser," Moliére broke certain Classicist norms by writing the comedy in prose (neveršovaná komédia) rather than verse. He employed satire combined with verbal and situational humor to demonstrate how money and extreme greed can deform human relationships. The primary source material for this work was derived from ancient comedy, specifically Plautus's "Pot of Gold" (Aulularia/Komédia o hrnci).
Despite the departure from verse, the play maintains the unities of action, place, and time. The entire plot unfolds in the house of the main character, Harpagon, over the course of a single day. Harpagon is presented as the quintessential miser—suspicious and pathologically greedy. To him, money is everything; however, the richer he becomes, the more impoverished and miserable life becomes within his household. He denies basic needs to himself, his children, his servants, and even his horses. He exists in a state of constant paranoia, fearing that someone will steal his wealth. The language used in the play is described as lively and folk-oriented.
Character Profiles in "The Miser"
Harpagon, the protagonist, is an old, sickly, and nervous man. He is a miser and a usurer, described as the worst in the entire city. He serves as a symbol of stinginess, having been so deformed by greed that he cannot see anything beyond his wealth. His servants are more hungry than full, and he goes as far as stealing oats from his own weak and emaciated horses. Harpagon is a slave to his money, which he refers to as his "only friends." His greed is so extreme that he offers a loan with inhuman conditions to his own son through an intermediary.
Kleant is Harpagon’s son, who is deeply ashamed of his father. To afford decent clothing, he is forced to participate in gambling. He is the polar opposite of his father. Harpagon frequently accuses him of wasting money, prompting Kleant to borrow funds at high interest rates from his own father without realizing the identity of the lender behind the intermediary.
Eliza is Harpagon’s beautiful but shy daughter who respects and fears her father. She is in love with Valér, a nobleman from Naples. Because she knows her father would never approve of their union, Valér enters the household in disguise as a servant to be near her. Anzelm is an elderly wealthy man whom Harpagon has selected to marry Eliza. Mariana is Valér’s sister; she loves Kleant, but because she is poor, Harpagon takes an interest in her himself. Šidlo serves as Valér’s servant and enters the house along with him.
Plot Development and Resolution of "The Miser"
The plot thickens as Kleant confides in Eliza that he loves the poor girl Mariana. Unaware of his children's feelings, Harpagon announces his intention to marry Mariana himself. He further informs them that he has found a widow for Kleant and the elderly Anselm for Eliza. The children oppose these plans. During Mariana’s visit to the house, Harpagon’s stinginess is on full display. Mariana realizes that her lover Kleant is the son of her future suitor. When Kleant accidentally reveals his feelings, Harpagon realizes his son is his rival in love.
The central conflict peaks when Harpagon’s small chest of money disappears. He calls for a commissioner to investigate and, in his hysteria, demands the arrest of the entire city. The chest was actually taken by the servant Šidlo and given to Kleant. When Anselm arrives at the house, Valér confesses his love for Eliza and reveals his true identity, explaining that he came to Paris to find his father after a shipwreck. Through this revelation, it is discovered that Valér and Mariana are the lost children of Anselm, who is actually a Neapolitan nobleman. Anselm promises to pay for both weddings, leading Harpagon to give his blessing. Harpagon is primarily motivated by the return of his money, which Kleant restores on the condition that he and his sister can marry the partners they love. The plot serves mainly as a vehicle to view the character of the miser from all possible perspectives.
Ján Chalupka and Slovak Classicist Theater
Ján Chalupka ( – ) was a key figure in Slovak Classicist literature and comedy. Born into a teacher's family and the older brother of Samo Chalupka, he studied philosophy and linguistics in Jena after attending gymnasiums in Levoča and Prešov. He worked as a teacher and later as a pastor in Brezno. A polyglot, he originally wrote in Biblical Czech but translated his works into Štúr’s Slovak toward the end of his life.
His notable works include "Kocúrkovo" (Kocúrkovo alebo Len aby sme v hanbe nezostali), its loose sequel "Everything Reversed" (Všetko naopak), "The Moldy Old Man" (Starúš plesnivec), which mocks an old widower trying to marry his -year-old ward, and the satirical novel "Bendeguz," which ridicules Hungarian chauvinism.
Analysis of "Kocúrkovo"
Published in , the comedy "Kocúrkovo alebo Len aby sme v hanbe nezostali" provides a satirical look at the Slovak petty bourgeoisie. It critiqued the lack of national consciousness and the "Magyarization" (denationalization) of the lower gentry (zemania). The play displays influences of Rationalism, the Enlightenment, and Classicist character typification. Interestingly, the second act incorporates Janosik traditions (brigands), showing elements of Pre-Romanticism.
Constructed in acts divided into scenes, the play is set in a small Slovak town. Chalupka exposes the ridiculous aspects of the lifestyles of small-town dwellers who try to follow world trends despite their backward environment. The characters are "black and white" (the fool, the intriguer, etc.), and their characterization is more significant than the plot. Names often reflect their character, such as the shoemaker Tesnošil or the teacher Svoboda.
Key Characters in "Kocúrkovo"
Pán z Chudobíc (Adolf) is a school and church inspector and a widower. He is an impoverished nobleman and a semi-educated person with massive gaps in his knowledge. He lives with his son Attila. Though Slovak by origin, he is a "Magyarón" (supporter of Hungarian culture), using Latin and Hungarian while opposing the Slovak language. Jánoš Tesnošil is a master shoemaker who represents a social class that fails to progress materially or spiritually. He is a braggart and a "renegade" (odrodilec). His wife, Madlena, is an intriguer governed by the phrase "just so we don't stay in shame," being uncritical of her own children while criticizing everyone else. Their daughter Anička is simple-minded and calculative, while their son Honzík is a typical student who smokes, wastes his parents' money, and lies.
Učiteľ Svoboda is a well-educated young man from a poor background. He is diligent, speaks foreign languages, and works in beekeeping to support his mother. He proudly manifests his national origin by reciting Kollár’s "Slávy dcéra," making him the first "nationalist" (národovec) character in literature. The characters Rajnoha, Krahulec, and Garazda are brigands who, instead of robbing the students, host them and sing together, serving as figures rather than fully typed characters.
Plot and Themes of "Kocúrkovo"
In the first act, a convention meets in Kocúrkovo to elect a new teacher. Tesnošil supports one candidate as a prospective son-in-law, while Pán z Chudobíc pushes for Svoboda from Turiec just to spite the local priest. The second act takes place under the Tatra mountains as students, including Svoboda and Honzík, return home and encounter the brigands. In the third act, Svoboda seeks employment at the dilapidated house of Pán z Chudobíc. He resists the advances of local women, including Anička, and ultimately chooses Ľudmila, the daughter of a poor teacher. The play ends on the note that life in Kocúrkovo continues unchanged as the people do not essentially change.
Concepts of Comedy and Cultural Heritage
The work utilizes two types of comedy: verbal (language-based) humor, seen in Pán z Chudobíc’s incorrect use of Latin and Hungarian, and character humor based on the unchanging traits of the figures. A farce is a specific type of comedy emphasizing situational humor and hyperbole, with roots in ancient times (Plautus). It features comic elements, expressive or non-standard words in dialogue, and sharp contrasts between characters.
Gašpar Fejérpataky-Belopotocký ( – ) founded an amateur theater in Liptovský Mikuláš in and led it for years. The first play he staged was Chalupka’s "Kocúrkovo." Today, the Liptov Library and an amateur theater competition (Belopotockého Mikuláš) are named in his honor.
Questions & Discussion
Question: Explain the meaning of the established phrase "to je hotové Kocúrkovo" and the term "kocúrkovské pomery" (Kocúrkovo circumstances).
Response: These terms refer to a state of complete chaos, backwardness, or absurdity where everything is done illogically or in direct opposition to common sense. It stems from Ján Chalupka's portrayal of a fictional small town where characters are more concerned with appearing sophisticated than actually progressing, representing a stagnant and hypocritical social environment.