AP PSYCHOLOGY

UNIT 0

1. critical thinking: thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
2. hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also
known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
3. peer reviewers: scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.
4. theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors
or events.
5. hypothesis: a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
6. falsifiable: the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.
7. operational definition: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a
research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
(Also known as operationalization.)
8. replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
9. case study: a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope
of revealing universal principles.
10. naturalistic observation: a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in
naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
11. survey: a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular
group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
12. social desirability bias: bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or
wishes.
13. self-report bias: bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.
14. sampling bias: a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
15. random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance
of inclusion.
16. population: all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn. (Note: Except
for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)
17. correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor
predicts the other.
18. correlation coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from −1.00 to+1.00).
19. variable: anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.
20. scatterplot: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of
the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the
strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
21. illusory correlation: perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.
22. regression toward the mean: the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
23. experiment: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
24. experimental group: in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment — that is, to one version of the independent variable.
25. control group: in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental
group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
26. random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus
minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
27. single-blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant
(blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.
28. double-blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the
research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
29. placebo effect [pluh-SEE-bo;
Latin for“I shall please”]: experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior
caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
30. independent variable: in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is
being studied.
31. confounding variable: in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might
influence a study’s results.
32. experimenter bias: bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their
own beliefs.
33. dependent variable: in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change
when the independent variable is manipulated.
34. validity: the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
35. quantitative research: a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.
36. qualitative research: a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated
into numbers.
37. informed consent: giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to
choose whether they wish to participate.
38. debriefing: the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its
participants.
39. descriptive statistics: numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include
measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
40. histogram: a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.
41. mode: the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
42. mean: the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number
of scores.
43. median: the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
44. percentile rank: the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.
45. skewed distribution: a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.
46. range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
47. standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
48. normal curve: a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most
scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie
near the extremes. (Also called a normal distribution.)
49. inferential statistics: numerical data that allow one to generalize — to infer from sample data the
probability of something being true of a population.
50. meta-analysis: a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall
conclusion.
51. statistical significance: a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference
between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied.
52. effect size: the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one.

UNIT 1

1. nature–nurture issue: the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and
experience make to the development of psycho

logical traits and behaviors. Today’s science views traits and behaviors
as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
2. natural selection: the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce
in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding
generations.
3. evolutionary psychology: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of
natural selection.
4. behavior genetics: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on
behavior.
5. mutation: a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
6. environment: every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and
things around us.
7. heredity: the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
8. genes: the biochemical units of heredity.
9. genome: the complete instructions for making an organism.
10. identical (monozygotic) twins: individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in
two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
11. fraternal (dizygotic) twins: individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they shared a prenatal environment.
12. interaction: the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on
another factor (such as heredity).
13. epigenetics: “above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which
environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).
14. nervous system: the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve
cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
15. central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord.
16. peripheral nervous system (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central
nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
17. nerves: bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands,
and sensory organs.

18. sensory (afferent) neurons: neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and
sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
19. motor (efferent) neurons: neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord
to the muscles and glands.
20. interneurons: neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
21. somatic nervous system: the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s
skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
22. autonomic [aw-tuh-NAHM-ik] nervous system (ANS): the part of the peripheral nervous
system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division
arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
23. sympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body,
mobilizing its energy.
24. parasympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the
body, conserving its energy.
25. reflex: a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex.
26. neuron: a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
27. cell body: the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center.
28. dendrites: a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting
impulses toward the cell body.
29. axon: the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to
muscles or glands.
30. myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath: a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it
enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.
31. glial cells (glia): cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play
a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
32. action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
33. threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
34. refractory period: in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired;
subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state.
35. all-or-none response: a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

36. synapse [SIN-aps]: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell
body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
37. neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. When released
by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron,
thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
38. reuptake: a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.
39. endorphins [en-DOR-fins]: “morphine within”; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain
control and to pleasure.
40. agonist: a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.
41. antagonist: a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.
42. endocrine [EN-duh-krin]: system the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands
and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
43. hormones: chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
44. psychoactive drug: a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and
moods.
45. substance use disorder: a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life
disruption.
46. depressants: drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
47. tolerance: the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take
larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.
48. addiction: an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior
patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences. (See also substance use
disorder.)
49. withdrawal: the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.
50. barbiturates: drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory
and judgment.
51. opioids: opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
52. stimulants: drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
53. hallucinogens: psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images
in the absence of sensory input.

54. near-death experience: an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death
(such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.
55. biological psychology: the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal)
and psychological processes. Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.
56. biopsychosocial approach: an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and
social-cultural levels of analysis.
57. levels of analysis: the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural,
for analyzing any given phenomenon.
58. neuroplasticity: the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage
or by building new pathways based on experience.
59. lesion [LEE-zhuhn]: tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma),
during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells).
60. EEG (electroencephalogram): an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping
across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
61. MEG (magnetoencephalography): a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields
from the brain’s natural electrical activity.
62. CT (computed tomography) scan: a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and
combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.
63. PET (positron emission tomography): a technique for detecting brain activity that displays
where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
64. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
65. fMRI (functional MRI): a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing
successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.
66. hindbrain: consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as
breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance.
67. midbrain: found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor
movement, and transmits auditory and visual information.
68. forebrain: consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities,
sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

69. brainstem: the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the
brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
70. medulla [muh-DUL-uh]: the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and
breathing.
71. thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]: the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem;
it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
72. reticular formation: a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters
information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.
73. cerebellum [sehr-uh- BELL-um]: the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its
functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal
learning and memory.
74. limbic system: neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that
includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and
drives.
75. amygdala [uh-MIG-duh-la]: two lima-bean–sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to
emotion.
76. hypothalamus [hi-po-THAL- uh-muss]: a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the
thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine
system, and is linked to emotion and reward.
77. hippocampus: a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories —
of facts and events — for storage.
78. cerebral [seh-REE-bruhl] cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the
forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.
79. frontal lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic
processing, muscle movements, higher- order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and
judgments).
80. parietal [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl] lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head
and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.
81. occipital [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl] lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head;
it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.
82. temporal lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory
areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.

83. motor cortex: a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
84. somatosensory cortex: a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and
processes body touch and movement sensations.
85. association areas: areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions,
but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
86. neurogenesis: the formation of new neurons.
87. corpus callosum [KOR-pus kah-LOW-sum]: the large band of neural fibers connecting the
two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
88. split brain: a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the
fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
89. consciousness: our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.
90. cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking,
knowing, remembering, and communicating).
91. dual processing: the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious
and unconscious tracks.
92. blindsight: a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing
it.
93. parallel processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.
94. sequential processing: processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to
process new information or to solve difficult problems.
95. sleep: a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma,
general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)
96. circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm: our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of
temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
97. REM sleep: rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.
Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems
are active. (Sometimes called R sleep.)
98. alpha waves: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
99. NREM sleep: non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.
100. hallucinations: false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual
stimulus.

101. hypnagogic sensations: bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating
weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep. (Also called hypnic sensations.)
102. delta waves: the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
103. suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian
rhythm. In response to light, the SCN adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.
104. insomnia: recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
105. narcolepsy: a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The affected person may lapse
directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
106. sleep apnea: a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and
repeated momentary awakenings.
107. REM sleep behavior disorder: a sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur;
instead, twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one’s dream.
108. dream: a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.
109. REM rebound: the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
110. sensation: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus
energies from our environment.
111. sensory receptors: sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.
112. perception: the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to
recognize objects and events as meaningful.
113. bottom-up processing: information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up
to the brain’s integration of sensory information.
114. top-down processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we
construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.
115. transduction: conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical
energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret.
116. psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their
intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
117. absolute threshold: the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent
of the time.
118. signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus
(signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection
depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

119. subliminal: below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
120. priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception,
memory, or response.
121. difference threshold: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent
of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd).
122. Weber’s law: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum
percentage (rather than a constant amount).
123. sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
124. wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next.
Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission.
125. hue: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names
blue, green, and so forth.
126. intensity: the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as
brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).
127. cornea: the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.
128. pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
129. iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of
the pupil opening.
130. lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
131. retina: the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers
of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
132. accommodation: the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far
objects on the retina.
133. rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement. Rods are necessary
for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.
134. cones: retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in
well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
135. optic nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
136. blind spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor
cells are located there.
137. fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

138. Young–Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory: the theory that the retina contains
three different types of color receptors — one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue — which, when
stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
139. opponent-process theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow,
white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are
stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
140. feature detectors: nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus,
such as shape, angle, or movement.
141. audition: the sense or act of hearing.
142. frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per
second).
143. pitch: a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
144. middle ear: the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
145. cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh]: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling
through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.
146. inner ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
147. sensorineural hearing loss: the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the
cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness.
148. conduction hearing loss: a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical
system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
149. cochlear implant a device: for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory
nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.
150. place theory: in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s
membrane is stimulated. (Also called place coding.)
151. frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve
matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal coding.)
152. gate-control theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain
signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small
nerve fibers, and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
153. gustation: our sense of taste.
154. olfaction: our sense of smell.

155. kinesthesis [kin-ehs-THEE- sis]: our movement sense; our system for sensing the position and
movement of individual body parts.
156. vestibular sense: our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense
of balance.
157. sensory interaction: the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food
influences its taste.
158. embodied cognition: the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive

UNIT 2

1. selective attention: focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
2. inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
3. change blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.
4. perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
5. gestalt: an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information
into meaningful wholes.
6. figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their
surroundings (the ground).
7. grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
8. depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina
are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
9. visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
10. binocular cue: a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.
11. convergence: a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images.
12. retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes,
the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
13. monocular cue: a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
14. stroboscopic movement: an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced
when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images.
15. phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off
in quick succession.
16. autokinetic effect: the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room.
17. perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape,
and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.
18. color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters
the wavelengths reflected by the object.
19. perceptual adaptation: the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced
or even inverted visual field.
20. cognition: all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
21. metacognition: cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.
22. concept: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

23. prototype: a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a
quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical
bird, such as a crow).
24. schema: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
25. assimilation: interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.
26. accommodation (in developmental psychology): in developmental psychology, adapting
our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.
27. creativity: the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.
28. convergent thinking: narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
29. divergent thinking: expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges
in different directions.
30. executive functions: cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and
implement goal-directed behavior.
31. algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts
with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics.
32. heuristic: a simple thinking strategy—a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgments and
solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.
33. insight: a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
34. confirmation bias: a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore
or distort contradictory evidence.
35. fixation: in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving.
36. mental set: a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful
in the past.
37. intuition: an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious
reasoning.
38. representativeness heuristic: judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to
represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
39. availability heuristic: judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances
come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
40. overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our
beliefs and judgments.

41. belief perseverance: the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were
formed has been discredited.
42. framing: the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
43. nudge: framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.
44. memory: persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
45. recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a
fill-in-the-blank test.
46. recognition: a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a
multiple-choice test.
47. relearning: a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
48. encoding: the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting
meaning.
49. storage: the process of retaining encoded information over time.
50. retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage.
51. parallel processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.
52. sensory memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
53. short-term memory: briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while
calling) that is later stored or forgotten.
54. long-term memory: the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes
knowledge, skills, and experiences.
55. working memory: a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both
(1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.
56. central executive: a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and
visuospatial sketchpad.
57. phonological loop: a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.
58. visuospatial sketchpad: a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space.
59. neurogenesis: the formation of new neurons.
60. long-term potentiation (LTP): an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.
61. explicit memory: retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and“declare.” (Also
called declarative memory.)

62. effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
63. automatic processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and
frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.
64. implicit memory: retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
65. iconic memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory
lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
66. echoic memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and
words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
67. chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
68. mnemonics [nih-MON-iks]: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and
organizational devices.
69. spacing effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is
achieved through massed study or practice.
70. testing effect: enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred
to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
71. shallow processing: encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.
72. deep processing: encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best
retention.
73. semantic memory: explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory
systems (the other is episodic memory).
74. episodic memory: explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory
systems (the other is semantic memory).
75. hippocampus: a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories
— of facts and events — for storage.
76. memory consolidation: the neural storage of a long-term memory.
77. flashbulb memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
78. priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
79. encoding specificity principle: the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will
be most effective in helping us recall it.
80. mood-congruent memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current
good or bad mood.

81. serial position effect: our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect), and
the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect).
82. interleaving: a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.
83. anterograde amnesia: an inability to form new memories.
84. retrograde amnesia: an inability to remember information from one’s past.
85. proactive interference: the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new
information.
86. retroactive interference: the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old
information.
87. repression: in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness
anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
88. reconsolidation: a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered
before being stored again.
89. misinformation effect: occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.
90. source amnesia: faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when
misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart
of many false memories.
91. déjà vu: that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
92. intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new
situations.
93. general intelligence (g): according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is
therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
94. factor analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test;
used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score.
95. fluid intelligence (Gf): our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age,
especially during late adulthood.
96. crystallized intelligence (Gc): our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with
age.
97. Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory: the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific
abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc.

98. savant syndrome: a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional
specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.
99. grit: in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.
100. emotional intelligence: the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
101. intelligence test: a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with
those of others, using numerical scores.
102. achievement test: a test designed to assess what a person has learned.
103. aptitude test: a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
104. mental age: a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically
associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is
said to have a mental age of 8.
105. Stanford-Binet: the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original
intelligence test.
106. intelligence quotient (IQ): defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age
(ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a
given age is assigned a score of 100.
107. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): the WAIS and its companion versions for children
are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.
108. psychometrics: the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
109. standardization: defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the
performance of a pretested group.
110. normal curve: the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological
attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
111. Flynn effect: the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures.
112. reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on
two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.
113. validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also predictive validity.)
114. content validity: the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.
115. construct validity: how much a test measures a concept or trait.
116. predictive validity: the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is
assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related
validity.)

117. cross-sectional study: research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
118. longitudinal study: research that follows and retests the same people over time.
119. cohort: a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as being from a given time period.
120. growth mindset: a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed.
121. fixed mindset: the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.
122. stereotype threat: a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based

UNIT 3

1. developmental psychology: a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan.
2. cross-sectional study: research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
3. longitudinal study: research that follows and retests the same people over time.
4. teratogens: agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal
development and cause harm.
5. fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth
mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and
distinct facial features.
6. habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated
exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
7. maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by
experience.
8. critical period: an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or
experiences produces normal development.
9. adolescence: the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
10. puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing.
11. menopause: the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman
experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.
12. sex: in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.
13. gender: in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s
biological sex. (See also gender identity.)
14. intersex: possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.
15. aggression: any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
16. relational aggression: an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing.
17. X chromosome: the sex chromosome found in females and males. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
18. Y chromosome: the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome
from the mother, it produces a male child.

19. testosterone: the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional
testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development
of male sex characteristics during puberty.
20. estrogens: sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted
in greater amounts by females than by males.
21. primary sex characteristics: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make
sexual reproduction possible.
22. secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male
voice quality, and body hair.
23. spermarche [sper-MAR-key]: the first ejaculation.
24. menarche [meh-NAR-key]: the first menstrual period.
25. role: a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
26. gender role: a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women.
27. sexual aggression: any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to
harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault.
28. gender identity: our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and
female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result
from this identity.
29. social learning theory: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by
being rewarded or punished.
30. gender typing: the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
31. androgyny: blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics.
32. transgender: an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that
associated with their birth-assigned sex.
33. sexuality: our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to another.
34. asexual: having no sexual attraction toward others.
35. social script: a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
36. sexual orientation: according to the APA (2015), “a person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another
person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.”
37. cognition: all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
38. schema: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
39. assimilation: interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

40. accommodation (in developmental psychology): in developmental psychology, adapting
our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.
41. sensorimotor stage: in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants
know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
42. object permanence: the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
43. preoperational stage: in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child
learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
44. conservation: the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that
properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
45. egocentrism: in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.
46. concrete operational stage: in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7
to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about
concrete (actual, physical) events.
47. formal operational stage: in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning
about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
48. scaffold: in Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher
levels of thinking.
49. theory of mind: people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states — about their feelings,
perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
50. language: our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words, and the ways we combine them
to communicate meaning.
51. phoneme: in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
52. morpheme: in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such
as a prefix).
53. grammar: in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
Semantics is the language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining
words into grammatically sensible sentences.
54. universal grammar (UG): humans’ innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that
govern grammar in all languages.
55. babbling stage: the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant
spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language.

56. one-word stage: the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks
mostly in single words.
57. two-word stage: the stage in speech development, beginning about age 2, during which a child speaks
mostly in two-word sentences.
58. telegraphic speech: the early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram —“go car”— using
mostly nouns and verbs.
59. aphasia: impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
60. Broca’s area: a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression
by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.
61. Wernicke’s area: a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and
expression.
62. linguistic determinism: Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
63. linguistic relativism: the idea that language influences the way we think.
64. ecological systems theory: a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development,
using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct
to indirect influences.
65. stranger anxiety: the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of
age.
66. attachment: an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers
and showing distress on separation.
67. imprinting: the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.
68. strange situation: a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar
environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed.
69. secure attachment: demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of
their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return.
70. insecure attachment: demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant
attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or
reunited with caregivers.
71. temperament: a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
72. basic trust: according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed
during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

73. self-concept: all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”
74. identity: our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing
and integrating various roles.
75. social identity: the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from
our group memberships.
76. intimacy: in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in
young adulthood.
77. emerging adulthood: a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in
prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.
78. social clock: the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
79. learning: the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
80. associative learning: learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).
81. stimulus: any event or situation that evokes a response.
82. respondent behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
83. operant behavior: behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.
84. cognitive learning: the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching
others, or through language.
85. classical conditioning: a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate
with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the
second stimulus (food).
86. behaviorism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without
reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
87. neutral stimulus (NS): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
88. unconditioned response (UCR): in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as food in the mouth).
89. unconditioned stimulus (UCS): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).
90. conditioned response (CR): in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but
now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
91. conditioned stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

92. acquisition: in classical conditioning, the initial stage — when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning,
the strengthening of a reinforced response.)
93. higher-order conditioning: a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning
experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example,
an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin
responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
94. extinction: in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned
stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)
95. spontaneous recovery: the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.
96. generalization: (also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant
conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)
97. discrimination (in classical conditioning): in classical conditioning, the learned ability to
distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned
stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses
that are not reinforced.)
98. preparedness: a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that
have survival value.
99. operant conditioning: a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed
by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
100. law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences
become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely.
101. operant chamber: in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the
animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
102. reinforcement: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
103. shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior.
104. discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association
with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

105. positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
106. negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A
negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative
reinforcement is not punishment.)
107. primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
108. conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a
primary reinforcer. (Also known as a secondary reinforcer.)
109. reinforcement schedule: a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
110. continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
111. partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing a response only part of the
time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous
reinforcement.
112. fixed-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified number of responses.
113. variable-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
114. fixed-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
115. variable-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a
response at unpredictable time intervals.
116. punishment: an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
117. instinctive drift: the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
118. cognitive map: a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring
a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
119. latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
120. insight learning: solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
121. observational learning: learning by observing others. (Also called social learning.)
122. modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
123. mirror neurons: neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe
another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
124. prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
125. antisocial behavior: negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite prosocial behavior.

UNIT 4

1. person perception: how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.
2. attribution theory: the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a
situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution).
3. fundamental attribution error: the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to
underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
4. actor-observer bias: the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external
causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental
attribution error (which focuses on our explanations for others’ behavior).
5. prejudice: an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally
involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
6. stereotype: a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
7. discrimination: unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.
8. just-world phenomenon: the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore
get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
9. social identity: the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from
our group memberships.
10. ingroup: “us”—people with whom we share a common identity.
11. outgroup: “them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.
12. ingroup bias: the tendency to favor our own group.
13. scapegoat theory: the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
14. other-race effect: the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races.
Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.
15. attitudes: feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to
objects, people, and events.
16. foot-in-the-door phenomenon: the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request
to comply later with a larger request.
17. role: a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
18. cognitive dissonance theory: the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel
when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and
our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
19. persuasion: changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

20. peripheral route persuasion: occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a
speaker’s attractiveness.
21. central route persuasion: occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering
evidence and arguments.
22. norms: a society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior
in individual and social situations.
23. conformity: adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
24. normative social influence: influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid
disapproval.
25. informational social influence: influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’
opinions about reality.
26. obedience: complying with an order or a command.
27. social facilitation: in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and
worsened performance on difficult tasks.
28. social loafing: the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward
attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
29. deindividuation: the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster
arousal and anonymity.
30. group polarization: the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the
group.
31. groupthink: the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group
overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
32. culture: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and
transmitted from one generation to the next.
33. tight culture: a place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.
34. loose culture: a place with flexible and informal norms.
35. aggression: any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
36. frustration-aggression principle: the principle that frustration — the blocking of an attempt to
achieve some goal — creates anger, which can generate aggression.
37. social script: a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
38. mere exposure effect: the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of
them.

39. passionate love: an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the
beginning of a romantic relationship.
40. companionate love: the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are
intertwined.
41. equity: a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
42. altruism: unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
43. bystander effect: the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are
present.
44. social exchange theory: the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which
is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
45. reciprocity norm: an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
46. social-responsibility norm: an expectation that people will help those needing their help.
47. conflict: a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
48. social trap: a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the
group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
49. mirror-image perceptions: mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees
itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.
50. self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
51. superordinate goals: shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
52. GRIT: Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.
53. personality: an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
54. psychodynamic theories: theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and
the importance of childhood experiences.
55. psychoanalysis (theory): Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and
interpret unconscious tensions.
56. unconscious: according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and
memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
57. free association: in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes
and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

58. id: a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and
aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
59. ego: the partly conscious, “executive”part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands
of the id, the superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that
will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
60. superego: the partly conscious part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals
and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
61. defense mechanisms: in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by
unconsciously distorting reality.
62. repression: in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness
anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
63. collective unconscious: Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our
species’ history.
64. terror-management theory: a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and
behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.
65. Thematic ApperceptionTest (TAT): a projective test in which people express their inner feelings
and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
66. projective test: a personality test, such as the TAT or Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed
to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics and explore the preconscious and unconscious mind.
67. Rorschach inkblot test: a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s
inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots.
68. humanistic theories: theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal
growth.
69. hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s levels of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs.
Often visualized as a pyramid, with needs nearer the base taking priority until they are satisfied.
70. self-actualization: according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic
physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.
71. self-transcendence: according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the
self.
72. unconditional positive regard: a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers
believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Also known as unconditional regard.)
73. self-concept: all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

74. trait: a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by
self-report inventories and peer reports.
75. personality inventory: a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people
respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality
traits.
76. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): the most widely researched and
clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most
appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
77. empirically derived test: a test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those
that discriminate between groups.
78. Big Five factors: five traits — openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
— that describe personality. (Also called the five-factor model.)
79. social-cognitive perspective: a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s
traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
80. behavioral approach: focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.
81. reciprocal determinism: the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.
82. self: in modern psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings,
and actions.
83. spotlight effect: overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).
84. self-esteem: our feelings of high or low self-worth.
85. self-efficacy: our sense of competence and effectiveness.
86. self-serving bias: a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably.
87. narcissism: excessive self-love and self-absorption.
88. individualism: a cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines identity
mainly in terms of unique personal attributes.
89. collectivism: a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one’s extended family
or work group).
90. motivation: a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
91. instinct: a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.
92. physiological need: a basic bodily requirement.


93. drive-reduction theory: the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that
motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
94. homeostasis: a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of
body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.
95. incentive: a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
96. Yerkes-Dodson law: the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond
which performance decreases.
97. affiliation need: the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group.
98. self-determination theory: the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence,
autonomy, and relatedness.
99. intrinsic motivation: the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
100. extrinsic motivation: the desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
101. ostracism: deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups.
102. achievement motivation: a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for
control, and for attaining a high standard.
103. grit: in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.
104. glucose: the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body
tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
105. set point: the point at which the “weight thermostat” may be set. When the body falls below this weight,
increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.
106. basal metabolic rate: the body’s resting rate of energy output.
107. obesity: defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher, which is calculated from our
weight-to-height ratio. (Individuals who are overweight have a BMI of 25 or higher.)
108. emotion: a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal,(2) expressive behaviors,
and, most importantly, (3) conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations.
109. polygraph: a machine used in attempts to detect lies; measures emotion-linked changes in perspiration,
heart rate, and breathing.
110. facial feedback effect: the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as
fear, anger, or happiness.
111. behavior feedback effect: the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts,

UNIT 5

1. health psychology: a subfield of psychology that explores the impact of psychological, behavioral, and
cultural factors on health and wellness.
2. psychoneuroimmunology: the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together
affect our immune system and resulting health.
3. stress: the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as
threatening or challenging.
4. approach and avoidance motives: the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a
stimulus.
5. general adaptation syndrome (GAS): Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress
in three phases — alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
6. tend-and-befriend response: under stress, people (especially women) may nurture themselves and
others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).
7. coronary heart disease: the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; a leading cause of
death in many developed countries.
8. Type A: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and
anger-prone people.
9. Type B: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.
10. catharsis: in psychology, the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves
aggressive urges.
11. coping: alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.
12. problem-focused coping: attempting to alleviate stress directly — by changing the stressor or the
way we interact with that stressor.
13. emotion-focused coping: attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and
attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction.
14. personal control: our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.
15. learned helplessness: the hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn
when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
16. external locus of control: the perception that outside forces beyond our personal control determine
our fate.
17. internal locus of control: the perception that we control our own fate.
18. self-control: the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

19. positive psychology: the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of promoting strengths
and virtues that foster well-being, resilience, and positive emotions, and that help individuals and communities to
thrive.
20. subjective well-being: self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of
objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life.
21. feel-good, do-good phenomenon: people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood.
22. adaptation-level phenomenon: our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income)
relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.
23. relative deprivation: the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare
ourselves.
24. broaden-and-build theory: proposes that positive emotions broaden our awareness, which over
time helps us build novel and meaningful skills and resilience that improve well-being.
25. character strengths and virtues: a classification system to identify positive traits; organized into
categories of wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
26. resilience: the personal strength that helps people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even
trauma.
27. aerobic exercise: sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression
and anxiety.
28. mindfulness meditation: a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a
nonjudgmental and accepting manner.
29. gratitude: an appreciative emotion people often experience when they benefit from other’s actions or
recognize their own good fortune.
30. psychological disorder: a disturbance in people’s thoughts, emotions, or behaviors that causes
distress or suffering and impairs their daily lives.
31. medical model: the concept that diseases — in this case, psychological disorders — have physical causes
that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.
32. diathesis-stress model: the concept that genetic predispositions (diathesis) combine with environmental stressors (stress) to influence psychological disorder.
33. epigenetics: “above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which
environments can influence genetic expression (without a DNA change).
34. DSM-5-TR: the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth
Edition, Text Revision; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

35. anxiety disorders: a group of disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety and related maladaptive behaviors.
36. social anxiety disorder: intense fear and avoidance of social situations.
37. generalized anxiety disorder: an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.
38. panic disorder: an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in
which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often
followed by worry over a possible next attack.
39. agoraphobia: fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one may
experience a loss of control and panic.
40. specific phobia: an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific
object, activity, or situation.
41. obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive
thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both.
42. posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, avoidance of trauma-related stimuli, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling,
and/or insomnia that lingers for 4 weeks or more after a traumatic experience.
43. trauma- and stressor-related disorders: a group of disorders in which exposure to a traumatic
or stressful event is followed by psychological distress.
44. depressive disorders: a group of disorders characterized by an enduring sad, empty, or irritable mood,
along with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person’s ability to function.
45. bipolar disorders: a group of disorders in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and
lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)
46. major depressive disorder: a disorder in which a person experiences five or more symptoms lasting
two or more weeks, in the absence of drug use or a medical condition, at least one of which must be either (1)
depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.
47. persistent depressive disorder: a disorder in which people experience a depressed mood on
more days than not for at least two years. (Formerly called dysthymia.)
48. bipolar I disorder: the most severe form, in which people experience a euphoric, talkative, highly
energetic, and overly ambitious state that lasts a week or longer.
49. mania: a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgment is common.

50. bipolar II disorder: a less severe form of bipolar in which people move between depression and a milder
hypomania.
51. rumination: compulsive fretting; overthinking our problems and their causes.
52. schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a group of disorders characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized or unusual motor behavior, and negative symptoms (such as
diminished emotional expression); includes schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder.
53. psychotic disorders: a group of disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss
of contact with reality.
54. delusion: a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.
55. chronic schizophrenia: (also called process schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms
usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery
periods shorten.
56. acute schizophrenia: (also called reactive schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any
age, frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event, and from which recovery is much more likely.
57. dissociative disorders: a controversial, rare group of disorders characterized by a disruption of or
discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation,
motor control, and behavior.
58. dissociative identity disorder (DID): a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two
or more distinct and alternating identities. (Formerly called multiple personality disorder.)
59. dissociative amnesia: a disorder in which people with intact brains reportedly experience memory
gaps; people with dissociative amnesia may report not remembering trauma-related specific events, people, places,
or aspects of their identity and life history.
60. personality disorders: a group of disorders characterized by enduring inner experiences or behavior
patterns that differ from someone’s cultural norms and expectations, are pervasive and inflexible, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, are stable over time, and cause distress or impairment.
61. antisocial personality disorder: a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits
a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a
clever con artist.
62. feeding and eating disorders: a group of disorders characterized by altered consumption or
absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning. (Feeding disorders typically occur in infants and
young children, whereas eating disorders affect people who self-feed.)

63. anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight, and has an inaccurate self-perception; sometimes accompanied
by excessive exercise.
64. bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods)
is followed by inappropriate weight-loss-promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive
exercise.
65. neurodevelopmental disorders: central nervous system abnormalities (usually in the brain) that
start in childhood and alter thinking and behavior (as in intellectual limitations or a psychological disorder).
66. autism spectrum disorder (ASD): a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.
67. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity.
68. deinstitutionalization: the process, begun in the late twentieth century, of moving people with psychological disorders out of institutional facilities.
69. psychotherapy: treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained
therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.
70. biomedical therapy: prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology.
71. eclectic approach: an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy.
72. psychoanalysis (technique): Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient’s
free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences — and the analyst’s interpretations of them — released
previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
73. resistance: in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material.
74. interpretation: in psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting of supposed dream meanings, resistances, and
other significant behaviors and events in an effort to promote insight.
75. transference: in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).
76. psychodynamic therapy: therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as
responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight.
77. insight therapies: therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s
awareness of underlying motives and defenses.
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78. person-centered therapy: a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist
uses techniques such as active listening within an accepting, genuine, empathic environment to facilitate clients’
growth. (Also called client-centered therapy.)
79. active listening: empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and seeks clarification. A feature
of Rogers’ person-centered therapy.
80. unconditional positive regard: a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers
believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Also known as unconditional regard.)
81. behavior therapy: therapy that uses learning principles to reduce unwanted behaviors.
82. counterconditioning: behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.
83. exposure therapies: behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imaginary or actual situations) to the things they fear and
avoid.
84. systematic desensitization: a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with
gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat specific phobias.
85. virtual reality exposure therapy: a counterconditioning technique that treats anxiety through
creative electronic simulations in which people can safely face specific fears, such as flying, spiders, or public speaking.
86. aversive conditioning: associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior
(such as drinking alcohol).
87. token economy: an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token for exhibiting a desired
behavior and can later exchange tokens for privileges or treats.
88. cognitive therapy: therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the
assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.
89. rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT): a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by
Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.
90. cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).
91. group therapy: therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, providing benefits from group
interaction.
92. family therapy: therapy that treats people in the context of their family system.Views an individual’s
unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.
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93. confirmation bias: a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore
or distort contradictory evidence.
94. meta-analysis: a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall
conclusion.
95. evidence-based practice: clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with
clinical expertise and client characteristics and preferences.
96. therapeutic alliance: a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who
work together constructively to overcome the client’s problem.
97. psychopharmacology: the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.
98. antipsychotic drugs: drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorders.
99. antianxiety drugs: drugs used to control anxiety and agitation.
100. antidepressant drugs: drugs used to treat depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors — SSRIs.)
101. electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a biomedical therapy for severe depression in which a brief
electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized person.
102. transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): the application of repeated pulses of magnetic
energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.
103. psychosurgery: surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue to change behavior.
104. lobotomy: a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The
procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain.
105. hypnosis: a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that
certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur; in a therapeutic context, the hypnotist
attempts to use suggestion to reduce unpleasant physical sensations or emotions.
106. dissociation: a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously
with others.
107. posthypnotic suggestion: a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the
subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.
108. posttraumatic growth: positive psychological changes following a struggle with etremely challenging