The media landscape has expanded significantly from print journalism to include radio, television (network and cable), and the Internet (blogs and social media).
Social media enables instant communication and public discussion through user-generated content like images and videos.
The vast amount of information available today can be overwhelming, making the news media crucial in structuring and shaping political narratives.
Alternatively, the multitude of information sources might weaken the news media's power compared to when they monopolized attention.
Media Basics
Media encompasses various communication formats, including television (broadcast airwaves) and print (printed documents).
Mass media refers to the collection of all media forms communicating information to the general public (television, print, radio, and Internet).
Citizens rely on the media for concise and neutral coverage of important political and social events.
Roles within the Media
Journalists and reporters uncover news stories by monitoring areas of public interest (politics, business, sports).
They research background information and conduct interviews to create complete and balanced accounts.
Editors assign stories, approve articles, and edit content for accuracy and clarity.
Publishers (people or companies) own and produce print or digital media, overseeing content and finances to ensure profitability and quality.
Producers oversee the production and finances of visual media (television, radio, film).
News Media vs. Public Relations
News media aims to inform the public neutrally.
Public relations aims to improve the image of companies, organizations, or candidates, often through press releases and paid advertisements.
Some publications blur the line by publishing paid articles as news.
Media Types
Different media formats have varying complexities and are used by different demographics.
Millennials (aged 21–37) primarily use social media (YouTube, Twitter, Facebook) for news.
Baby Boomers (aged 54–72) mainly rely on television (national broadcasts or local news).
Television Formats
Scripted (dramas, comedies).
Unscripted (game shows, reality programs).
Informative (news programming).
National Networks purchase program rights and distribute them to local stations across the U.S.
Local stations are often affiliated with national networks, broadcasting network programming to local viewers.
Affiliates prioritize network news and programming but can preempt them for local or national emergencies.
Network news focuses on national politics, international events, and the economy.
Local news covers regional business, crime, sports, and weather.
Cable Programming
Cable stations transmit programming directly to local cable company hubs, then to homes.
Cable networks can operate nationally without local affiliates and often specialize in specific programming.
CNN pioneered the 24-hour news station format.
C-SPAN has three channels covering Congress, the president, the courts, and public interest matters.
Cable, satellite, and Internet subscriptions offer on-demand programming, allowing viewers to watch programs instantly.
On-demand programming initially rebroadcasted old content commercial-free, but now often includes new programming with unskippable commercials.
Internet Media
The Internet has created many opportunities for niche media outlets due to the ease of online publication.
Websites like the New York Times focus on U.S. affairs, while BBC America covers world news.
FOX News provides conservative political commentary, and Daily Kos offers a liberal perspective.
Politico.com is a leader in niche journalism.
Online news has led to a proliferation of poorly written material with little editorial oversight.
Sites like Buzzfeed allow members to post articles without editorial review, resulting in varied quality and accuracy.
The Internet has increased the pressure for publication speed, leading to more typographical and factual errors.
Social media facilitates instant communication and sharing, allowing information to spread rapidly.
Platforms like Facebook and Twitter have millions of daily users.
Social media platforms serve different functions, with some (Tumblr, Reddit) facilitating topic-based, controversial discussions, and others (Instagram) being mostly social.
Anonymous commenting on some sites has led to increased threats and abuse (e.g., 4chan).
Most media are controlled by a limited number of conglomerates (corporations made up of numerous companies and media networks).
In the 1980s, over fifty companies owned the majority of television and radio stations and networks.
Currently, six conglomerates control most of the broadcast media in the U.S.: CBS Corporation, Comcast, Time Warner, 21st Century Fox, Viacom, and The Walt Disney Company.
Conglomerates can create a monopoly on information by controlling a sector of a market, limiting the information citizens receive.
Conglomerate ownership also creates circumstances in which censorship may occur.
Newspapers have also experienced concentrated ownership, with companies like Gannett Company controlling many newspapers and news magazines.
Concerns exist about the lack of variety in the media and the market dominance of media conglomerates.
Media outlets are businesses that must generate revenue while also entertaining, informing, and alerting the public without bias.
Functions of the Media
The media must attract viewers and advertisers to survive.
The media act as watchdogs of society and public officials (the "fourth estate"), helping maintain democracy and holding the government accountable.
The media engage in agenda setting, choosing which issues or topics deserve public discussion.
8.2 The Evolution of the Media
The media have been subject to accusations of mind control, bias, and poor quality.
Advances in communications technology allow people to find more information more easily than ever before.
Print Media
Early news was disseminated through the print press.
Boston was the location of the first continuous press in 1704 due to high literacy rates and the desire for self-government.
Newspapers spread information about local events and activities.
The Stamp Tax of 1765 increased costs for publishers, leading some newspapers to fold.
Newspapers informed citizens about British misdeeds and incited attempts to revolt.
During the Revolutionary War, newspapers united, but divisions during the Constitutional Convention led to the party press era, dominated by partisanship and political party loyalty.
Political parties supported presses that aided their policies.
Newspapers printed party propaganda and messages, attacking political leaders.
Freedom of the press was considered important for creating an informed electorate, and is enshrined in the First Amendment.
Between 1830 and 1860, mass production of newspapers became faster and less expensive through machines and manufacturing.
Penny press papers and magazines contained gossip but were affordable.
Papers expanded coverage to include racing, weather, and educational materials.
By 1841, some news reporters considered themselves responsible for upholding high journalistic standards.
By the end of the Civil War, more journalists and newspapers aimed to meet professional standards of accuracy and impartiality.
Yellow journalism: The tabloid-style paper included editorial pages, cartoons, and pictures, while the front-page news was sensational and scandalous.
The informational model exhibits impartiality and accuracy and promotes transparency in government and politics.
Muckraking: the writing and publishing of news coverage that exposed corrupt business and government practices
In the 21st century, newspapers have struggled to stay financially stable.
Many newspapers now maintain both a print and an Internet presence in order to compete for readers.
In an effort to stay visible and profitable, some local newspapers have turned to social media, like Facebook and Twitter.
Radio
Radio news made its appearance in the 1920s.
The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) began running sponsored news programs and radio dramas.
The radio brought communications to rural America as well.
President Warren Harding was the first president to regularly give speeches over the radio.
President Herbert Hoover used radio as well, mainly to announce government programs on aid and unemployment relief.
Franklin D. Roosevelt became famous for harnessing the political power of radio using fireside chats.
Fireside chats were an important way for him to promote his New Deal agenda
The need and desire for frequent news updates about the constantly evolving war made newspapers, with their once-a-day printing, too slow.
Reporter Edward R. Murrow of CBS began reporting live about Germany’s actions from his posts in Europe.
To protect covert military operations during the war, the White House had placed guidelines on the reporting of classified information, making a legal exception to the First Amendment’s protection against government involvement in the press.
The Radio Act (1927) created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), which made the first effort to set standards, frequencies, and license stations.
The Communications Act of 1934 ended the FRC and created the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which continued to work with radio stations to assign frequencies and set national standards, as well as oversee other forms of broadcasting and telephones.
After WWII, frequency modulation (FM) broadcasting, with its wider signal bandwidth, provided clear sound with less static and became popular with stations wanting to broadcast speeches or music with high-quality sound.
Talk stations began to gain ground in the 1980s on both AM and FM frequencies, restoring radio’s importance in politics.
In 1990, Sirius Satellite Radio began a campaign for FCC approval of satellite radio.
Television
Television combined the best attributes of radio and pictures and changed media forever.
The first official broadcast in the United States was President Franklin Roosevelt’s speech at the opening of the 1939 World’s Fair in New York.
Coverage of World War II changed their minds.
CBS reported on war events and included pictures and maps that enhanced the news for viewers.
By the 1950s, the price of television sets had dropped, more televisions stations were being created, and advertisers were buying up spots.
When Edward R. Murrow made the move to television in 1951 with his news show See It Now, television journalism gained its foothold
More than radio, television allows politicians to reach out and connect with citizens and voters in deeper ways.
The first television advertisements, run by presidential candidates Dwight D. Eisenhower and Adlai Stevenson in the early 1950s, were mainly radio jingles with animation or short question-and-answer sessions.
John F. Kennedy’s campaign used a Hollywood-style approach to promote his image as young and vibrant.
Television was also useful to combat scandals and accusations of impropriety.
The “Checkers speech” was remembered more for humanizing Nixon than for proving he had not taken money from the campaign account. Yet it was enough to quiet accusations.
The 1960 election also featured the first televised presidential debate.
President Gerald Ford, who was behind in the polls, invited Jimmy Carter to debate, and televised debates became a regular part of future presidential campaigns.
Between the 1960s and the 1990s, presidents often used television to reach citizens and gain support for policies.
These speeches aided in the “rally ’round the flag” phenomenon, which occurs when a population feels threatened and unites around the president.
8.3 New Media Trends
The invention of cable in the 1980s and the expansion of the Internet in the 2000s opened up more options for media consumers than ever before.
Viewers can watch nearly anything at the click of a button, bypass commercials, and record programs of interest.
Citizens who want to watch reality television and movies can easily avoid the news, leaving presidents with no sure way to communicate with the public.
Electoral candidates have also lost some media ground.
First Social Media Candidate
President Barack Obama admitted an addiction to his Blackberry, the signs were clear: Social Media Candidates are here.
Mitt Romney was taped by a bartender’s personal camera saying that 47 percent of Americans would vote for President Obama because they were dependent on the government.
Obama was recorded by a Huffington Post volunteer saying that some Midwesterners “cling to guns or religion or antipathy to people who aren’t like them” due to their frustration with the economy.
Donald Trump musings about having his way with women were revealed on the infamous Billy Bush Access Hollywood tape.
8.4 Watch Dog or Paparazzi?
We expect the media to keep a close eye on the government.
Some journalists limited their reporting to Benghazi, others did not.
8.5 Media and Transparency
Laws that mandate federal and many state government proceedings and meeting documents be made available to the public are called sunshine laws.
The primary legal example for sunshine laws is the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), passed in 1966 and signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson.
The act requires the executive branch of the U.S. government to provide information requested by citizens and was intended to increase openness in the executive branch, which had been criticized for hiding information.
Presidents limit the media in order to limit dissent.
Reporter’s privilege has increased the number of instances in which whistleblowers and government employees have given journalists tips or documents to prompt investigation into questionable government practices.
Journalists who conceal a source and thereby protect him or her from being properly tried for a crime may spend time in jail for contempt of court.
The transparency of the government is affected more by the executive currently holding office than by the First Amendment.
8.6 The Impact of the Media
The media’s primary duty is to present us with information and alert us when important events occur.
These ideas become part of the citizens’ frame of reference and affect their decisions.
Minimal effects theory: the media have little effect on citizens and voters.
Cultivation theory: media develop a person’s view of the world by presenting a perceived reality.
Episodic framing occurs when a story focuses on isolated details or specifics rather than looking broadly at a whole issue.
Thematic framing takes a broad look at an issue and skips numbers or details.