Key Technological and Economic Changes
- Understand the technological and economic changes that characterized the Second Industrial Revolution in the United States.
Interpretations of Freedom
- Describe differing interpretations of "freedom" as experienced by industrialists, workers, and reformers during the Gilded Age.
Labor Movements
- Summarize the main goals and strategies of labor movements during the Gilded Age.
Characteristics of Gilded Age Politics
- Explain the major characteristics of Gilded Age politics, including party loyalty, patronage, and voter participation.
The Second Industrial Revolution
Focus Question
What factors combined to make the United States a mature industrial society after the Civil War?
From Farm to Factory
The Industrial Economy
Indicators of Economic Change (1870–1920)
- Characteristics of explosive economic growth include:
- Abundant natural resources: The availability of resources such as coal, iron, and oil.
- Growing labor supply: A rising workforce due to immigration and urban migration.
- Expanding markets: Increased demand for goods due to population growth and urbanization.
- Promotion of development by the federal government: Government initiatives to encourage industrial growth.
By 1880, a majority of the workforce engaged in non-farming jobs for wages, signifying a shift from agricultural to industrial labor and a growth of urban centers.
Railroads
Railroads and the National Market
Railroads were a critical enabler of the Second Industrial Revolution.
- Investment and Government Support:
- Private investment combined with massive government grants of land and money facilitated railroad expansion.
- Impact of Railroads:
- Created a truly national market and opened vast amounts of land for development.
- Resulted in standardized time zones and regulated time.
Innovation and Competition
The Spirit of Innovation
Key technological innovations included:
- The telegraph: Revolutionized communication across distances.
- The telephone: Facilitated real-time voice communication.
- The typewriter: Enhanced business communication and documentation.
- The handheld camera: Transformed personal and public media representation.
- Scientific breakthroughs included electric power, which enabled new technologies.
Prominent Innovators:
- Thomas Edison: Known for developments in electric lighting and power.
- Nikola Tesla: Key contributions to alternating current power systems.
Competition and Consolidation:
- Businesses engaged in ruthless competition due to market volatility.
- Formation of pools and trusts aimed at controlling entire industries to mitigate competition.
Captains of Industry?
Notable Figures
Andrew Carnegie
- Scottish immigrant and steel industry magnate known for his use of vertical integration.
- Accumulated a vast fortune; much of his wealth was later distributed to various philanthropies.
John D. Rockefeller
- Founder of Standard Oil Company, initially employed horizontal integration to dominate the oil industry.
Actions of Carnegie and Rockefeller prompted debate over whether they were "captains of industry" or "robber barons."
Increasing Inequality
Workers’ Freedom in an Industrial Age
Economic dynamics:
- Minority of skilled workers commanded high wages and some control over the production process.
- Majority faced economic insecurity, long hours, low wages, and dangerous working conditions, lacking job protections.
Increasing Wealth and Poverty:
- Unprecedented accumulation of wealth, with the wealthiest 1% holding over 50% of the nation's wealth, showcasing rising inequality.
- Writers revealed both the extreme living conditions of the working class and the ostentatious lifestyles of the wealthy, highlighting residential segregation by class.
Freedom in the Gilded Age
Focus Question
How did the economic development of the Gilded Age affect American freedom?
Social Debate
Gilded Age Overview
- The period from 1870–1890 saw extensive public discussion regarding the new social order.
- Notable distrust existed between employers and employees.
Challenges to Traditional Freedom
- Concentration of wealth conflicted with traditional definitions of freedom, which associated freedom with equality.
- Some liberals sought to limit lower-class political power, advocating for reinstating property qualifications for voting.
Inequality and Democracy:
- The ideology of natural superiority was used to rationalize success and failure among individuals and classes.
- Social Darwinism argued that society evolves naturally without governmental intervention; poverty was viewed as a consequence of lack of self-reliance.
- William Graham Sumner was a leading proponent of Social Darwinism in America.
Negative Freedom
Definition and Implications
“Negative” Freedom:
- Defined as limited government intervention and a free market economy.
- Emphasizes individual labor contracts between workers and employers while viewing collective action as a threat to individual liberty.
Liberty of Contract:
- The Fourteenth Amendment came to be interpreted as underpinning the concept of liberty of contract.
- Courts often viewed business regulation as infringing on free labor.
- Decisions like Lochner v. New York voided state laws limiting work hours, symbolizing judicial support for businesses over labor organizations.
Labor and the Republic
Focus Question
How did reformers of the period approach the problems of an industrial society?
Labor and the Republic: The Workers’ Plight
“The Overwhelming Labor Question”:
- Shift in focus from slavery to labor-related issues post-Civil War.
- The Great Railroad Strike illustrated tensions; post-strike, the government reinforced property rights through armory construction and federal intervention.
The Knights of Labor:
- The first organization to unite skilled and unskilled workers, women, men, and Black individuals.
- Defined freedom as encompassing basic economic rights for all.
- Raised the question whether true freedom was possible amid extreme economic inequality.
Reform and Henry George
Middle-Class Reformers:
- Social thinkers acknowledged systemic issues and proposed multiple reform ideas.
Henry George’s “Progress and Poverty” (1879):
- Proposed a single tax on real estate value increases to curb speculation.
- Argued that labor represented true freedom, while government interference oppressed workers' liberty.
Gronlund and Bellamy
Laurence Gronlund:
- Authored The Cooperative Commonwealth, introducing socialist ideas to an American audience.
- Suggested a peaceful, evolutionary end to class struggle appealing to middle-class sensibilities.
Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward:
- Proposed a utopian future where cooperation and equality predominate, advocating for state-guaranteed economic security for all.
- Inspired nationalist clubs and influenced progressive social thinkers.
Christianity
Moral and Political Activism
The “Christian lobby” sought to address moral challenges through political solutions, campaigning against alcohol, gambling, prostitution, polygamy, and contraception.
The South emerged as the “Bible Belt,” leading movements focused on moral reform.
Social Gospel Movement:
- Advocated that true freedom and spiritual development necessitate economic equity.
- Established missions and relief programs, collaborating with labor organizations.
Uprisings
Labor Unrest and Political Response
The Haymarket Affair (1886):
- Notable labor activity surge, with the first May Day commemorating labor rights.
- The Haymarket incident involved workers and police, culminating in a bomb explosion that incited public panic and negative depictions of the labor movement.
- Some labor leaders were executed while others, like Lucy Parsons, continued advocating for labor rights.
Labor and Politics:
- Rise of independent labor political action aimed at eliminating the use of public/private forces against laborers.
- 1886 represented a pinnacle for the Knights of Labor, which faced decline due to increased hostility and associates with violence.
Politics in a Gilded Age
Focus Question
Was the Gilded Age political system effective in meeting its goals?
Bosses and Corruption
Political Dynamics
Political corruption was widespread, undermining political freedom in the era of burgeoning corporations.
- Notable corruption scandals included New York’s Tweed Ring, Crédit Mobilier, and the Whiskey Ring.
Political Parties:
- Republicans dominated the industrial North and Midwest, while Democrats held the South, leading to a political stalemate amid closely contested elections with over 80% voter turnout.
Small Government, Initial Reform
Federal Government Dynamics:
- The period was characterized by a relatively small federal government by today’s standards.
- Republicans emphasized high tariffs, reduced spending, and paying off national debt while returning to the gold standard in 1879.
- Democrats opposed high tariffs but resisted demands for an increased money supply.
Reform Legislation:
- Civil Service Act of 1883: Established merit-based selection for government jobs.
- Interstate Commerce Commission: Aimed to regulate railroad rates and practices.
- Sherman Antitrust Act: Sought to curtail monopolies and protect competition, establishing federal authority in economic regulation.
The States
Political Conflict
The Gilded Age was marked by state-level political turmoil and conflict.
Third parties made significant, albeit brief, gains in local elections.
Public outcry arose against railroad companies, particularly in the West, demonstrating the growing unrest among citizens.
Summary
Focus Questions
What factors combined to make the United States a mature industrial society after the Civil War?
- Rapid technological innovation, abundant natural resources, and growing labor force, supported by railroad expansion and federal involvement, transformed the U.S. economy and workforce.
How did the economic development of the Gilded Age affect American freedom?
- Economic advancement expanded opportunities for industrialists but restricted workers' freedom, who endured harsh conditions, leading to debates over the meanings of freedom and market protections.
How did reformers of the period address the problems of an industrial society?
- Reformers advocated for labor organization, economic reforms, socialist ideas, and religious activism, arguing for a stronger government role in ensuring economic equality and security for workers.
Was the Gilded Age political system effective in meeting its goals?
- The political system struggled with corruption, party loyalty, and stasis, limiting its ability to confront corporate power or address urgent social reforms for industrial challenges.