Unit 3 - 1648-1815

Introduction to Absolutism and Constitutionalism

  • Review of Unit 3 of AP European History focuses on absolutism and constitutionalism as dominant government innovations in Europe.

  • Key Question: Which states became absolutist and which became constitutional, and what were the reasons behind these paths?

  • Context: Prior unit discussed states centralizing power, facilitating the merge of political and religious authorities due to the Reformation and wars of religion.

Absolutism

  • Definition: Absolutism is when monarchs consolidate all state power under themselves to advance their state's needs.

  • Historical Context: Prior to this era, power was distributed among monarchs, nobles, and the church.

  • During this era: Monarchs took all power to themselves

  • Influence Factors leading to the rise of absolutist states:

    • Weakened influence of the Catholic Church due to growing acceptance/ tolerance of Protestantism and lack of interest in religious warfare post-Peace of Westphalia.

    • Expanding merchant class seeking economic and political stability from absolute monarchs, shifting power from nobility to these merchants.

    • The loss of power between the nobles and the church, leaves the monarchs who took this opportunity to rise

  • Example of Absolutist Ruler: Louis XIV of France. His belief, "L'état, c'est moi" symbolizes the embodiment of state power because it meant “I am the State”

    • Saw himself as the highest and only authority for France

Louis XIV and the Fronde

  • Background: Events during Louis XIV's childhood collectively known as the Fronde led to his absolute rule.

  • Fronde: A rebellion of nobles against Cardinal Mazarin's centralizing policies, indicating a need for strong leadership to restore order.

Cardinal Mazarin's Role

  • Summary: Mazarin consolidated power and successfully diminished the rebellion of nobles and their power, leading to the eventual acceptance of a strong monarch by the people of France once Louis XIV assumed power.

Consolidation of Power under Louis XIV

  • Jean- Baptiste Colbert- Louis XIV finance minister who helped him introduce several reforms that helped consolidate power under his throne

  • Intendant System:

    • Louis sent bureaucratic agents, called intendants, into districts of France to enforce royal policies and undermine local governors and nobility authority.

  • Construction of the Palace of Versailles:

    • Nobility relocated to Versailles, allowing Louis to monitor them and demand loyalty through throwing parties and alcohol consumption.

  • Revocation of Edict of Nantes:

    • Louis eliminated religious tolerance for Protestants, consolidating power under his control and aligning state with Catholicism.

    • Took away power from the Catholic Church

    • Edict of Nantes was established under Louis the IV (4) establishing tremendous religious tolerance within France

    • By taking it away, he aligned France under Catholicism which was Louis XIV religious belief

    • Louis XIV eliminated protection for the Huguenots leading to Huguenots flee in which they migrated to more tolerant states, robbing France of a good amount of their merchant class

    • Louis XIV made himself the head of the Catholic Church in France merging political and religious loyalties of the French population

  • Military expansion

    • Financed through economic strategies

  • Economic Strategies:

    • Louis’s finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert implemented mercantilist policies (export more than import), emphasizing exports and tariffs

    • Effects

      • Decreased France’s Debt

      • Breathed new life into domestic industries

      • Expanded France’s colonial holdings

      • Created a favorable balance of trade

    • Ultimately Louis XIV wars were the reasons that Colbert’s effort were no longer sustainable

Peter the Great of Russia

  • Historical Context: Peter became Tsar in 1682 amidst a feudalistic structure, recognizing the necessity of westernization for Russia's survival after viewing how the other states were westernizing

  • Reforms Introduced to modernize Russia and consolidate power under Peter:

    • Political Reform: Required nobles to serve in military or civil administration, limiting noble power.

      • Created table of ranks that nobles could move through

        • Ensured that the experts ended up on top

      • Essential for a modern government + key to reducing nobility power

    • Religious Reform:

      • Reorganized the Russian Orthodox Church by eliminating the role of Patriarch (Pope of Orthodox Church)

      • Replaced the role of Patriarch with Holy Synod

        • Peter populated with officials and minister who would do his bidding

    • Cultural Reform: Enforced Western customs and dress among nobles, including a beard tax because beards were banned

  • Funding of Reforms through increase in taxes, leading to nobles and peasantry to despise Peter reform

  • Westernization efforts brought the nation into mainstream of European development

  • Process continued through successor Catherine the great

Exceptions for Absolutism: English and Dutch

Constitutionalism in England

  • Contrast: While many states (France, Prussia, Austria, and Russia) shifted toward absolutism, England moved toward constitutionalism, where government is limited by the rule of law (has to share power with parliament)

  • Causes of the English Civil War:

    • Divine Right of Kings:

      • James the first believed that the monarch was god’s representative on earth, therefore, Cristism of the monarch=critism of god

        • Unfortunately for him, Magna Carta was created(established a parliament) preventing him from gaining absolute power

      • Charles I succeeded James

      • Monarchs like Charles I upheld this belief against Parliament's power + believed in taking people’s property

        • Rising tensions between monarch and House of Commons because English tradition did NOT allow stealing property

    • Economic Tensions: Charles avoided Parliament due to financial disagreements, leading to the Long Parliament

      • Led to Triennial Act: Forced the king into session at least once every three years, thus creating more limit on the power of the king

    • Religious Tensions: The rise of Puritanism and resistance against Catholic influence in governance.

      • Church of England established by Henry 8 during Protestant expansion

        • Retained practices and structures from the Catholic Church

      • Puritans wished to purify the church by ridding it of all Roman Catholicism

        • James and Charles I refused to meet demands +Charles marries a catholic in opposition

      • Caused tension between king and parliament

English Civil War

  • Overview: The conflict unfolded between the king and Parliament + other elites over respective roles in political structure.

    • parliament army was victorious over king’s army but Charles refused to succeed

    • Eventually, Oliver Cromwell(a puritan who is part of the House of Commons:English Parliament) led the parliamentary army to victory

    • Cromwell kicked out parliament members who opposed him

      • Rump Parliament: Representatives left after the removal of opposition

        • Tried and executed Charles I after finding him guilty

  • Cromwell created a dictatorship in England, consolidating power under himself

  • Consequences: England becomes a true republic called the Protectorate under Cromwell who was named lord Protectorate

    • In reality it was ruled as Military dictatorship rather than a republic w/ Cromwell as the head

    • As a Puritan, Cromwell imposed the same moralistic rules upon england as John Calvin imposed in Geneva which the citizens were not happy about at all

      • No drinking, swearing, or dancing

    • After cromwell’s death, the protectorate fell in 1658

  • Restoration Period: Return to monarchy with Charles II

    • Schemed with France + struggled to coexist with Parliament.

    • James II comes into power after and appointed Catholics to important positions in army, universities, and government

      • Parliament removed James and gives power/ throne to his daughter Mary and William of Orange

        • Glorious Revolution

          • Because monarch’s changed without blood shed

        • Marked the end of Divine right and absolutism, strictly following constitutionalism

  • English Bill of rights: Included Provisions for Parliament, not the monarch to Levy taxes

    • Stipulated that when parliament made a law, it could not be annuler by the monarch

    • William and Marry could not assume throne until they signed this

The Dutch Republic

  • Antwerp: Trading city that led the Dutch to become the most prosperous state in Europe

  • Used to be controlled by Habsburg in Spain, therefore, upon Dutch prosperity Spanish Phillip II tried to take the wealth

    • Enacted policies that restricted the Netherlands and directed more wealth to the Spanish throne

  • Netherlands were Protestant: Calvinists, therefore Catholic Phillip II became frustrated at their disobedience

  • Dutch Protestants destroyed Catholic Churches across the Netherlands causing Phillip to send an army which killed thousands of Dutch Protestants on charges of Treason

William of Orange

  • Protestant leader who led the Protestants to ridding the Netherlands of Spain

  • Prior to becoming King of England, he was Head of state in the Dutch Republic

Peace of Westphalia 1648

  • Formed the Dutch Republic

  • Ended the 30 years war

  • Ended the 80 years war between the Dutch and Spanish

  • As a result of the Peace of Westphalia, the Dutch Republic emerged as the wealthiest European commercial empire

    • Led trade in Atlantic world

    • Large foot print in the Indian Ocean trade

Dutch Republic

  • Did not appoint a monarch

  • Oligarchy: A government ruled by a small group of people

    • Made up or Urban gentry + wealthy land owners which represented each province of the NetherlandS

  • State General deciding questions of foreign and domestic policy

    • Made up of Elite members of Society that typically passed policies serving their best interest

Balance of Power in Europe

  • Post-Westphalia: After the Peace of Westphalia, the primary cause of war shifted from religion to maintaining power balance among states.

  • Partition of Poland: Poland’s instability made it vulnerable to division among Austria, Prussia, and Russia, disappearing from maps for 150 years.

  • Weakness leading to Partition:

    • Nobles exploited the peasantry in Poland and defied the Monarch constantly

    • No Bureaucracy

    • Weakened by constant war

    • Surrounded by Absolutists states: Russia, Prussia, and Austria

      • Balance of power was tipped within these nations due to Russian victory over the Ottomans, establishing Russia as the stronger nation

      • Split up Poland for themselves, restoring the balance of power between those three

Battles and Wars fought to maintain Balance of Power

  • Due to attempting to maintain the balance of power

  • Battle of Vienna 1683

    • Ottoman Empire was massive + held positions in Southeast Europe + wanted to push further into central Europe

      • Attempted to invade Austria in Battle of Vienna to secure better trading routes along the Danube River

    • To stop expansion from occurring and tipping the balance of power, Austria, Hasburgs, Poland prior to partition, and Holy Roman Empire united to stop the invasion and were successful

    • Battle marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe

  • Louis XIV Wars

    • Engaged in endless wars to make gains in French territory and his dynasty+other dynasties that increased his power

    • Hungry for territory and power

    • Dutch War: Fought in it to gain territory in Spanish Netherlands + to weaken the Habsburgs which was unsuccessful

    • War of Spanish Secession 1702-1713: fought to pursue his dynastic interests

      • Charles II died, arranged Phillip V (5th) would succeed him

        • Phillip was actually Louis XIV grandson

      • Nations feared this due to France and Spain possibly combining and ruled under LOUIS XIV which would tip the balance of power

      • This war was meant to prevent this scenario

      • England, Prussia, Austria and Russia fought against Spain, France, Bavaria

      • To prevent one nation from gaining too much power and thus upsetting the Balance of Power in Europe

      • Treaty of Utrecht : Phillip the fifth would remain on Spanish throne but France and Spain must remain separate entities

Military Expansion and Innovation

  • Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden: Built a massive proffesional standing army + deployed it during the thirty years war

    • Organized into ascending rank so the Hierarchy of authority was apparent

  • Development of new military technology : Firearms, mobile cannons, and more elaborate fortifications

    • To fund this, Adolphus was required to raise taxes and expand the Bureaucracy

  • These developments from the Swedish army inspired other European powers particularly Louis XIV

  • Expansion of Military affected the balance of powrt

    • Nations who expanded their power like previously mentioned, found themselves in the winning side of the balance of power

Agricultural Revolution

  • Began in Britain and other Low Countries in the Netherlands

  • More people were moving to Urban Area for industrial work

  • Enclosure Movement: Reduced the amount of land available to poor farmers

    • Sent a lot of farmers to city seeking employment

    • Even with fewer farmers, Agricultural output tripled across Europe

  • Three field System: 3 pieces of land, 2 were farmed and one lied Fallow

    • Old method

New Innovations

  • Crop Rotation: Changing the crops used on the land so when one leeches the nutrients, the other brings them back in like potatoes and clover

    • Replaced 3 field system

    • Increased food supply + agricultural goods

  • Seed Drill by Jethro Tulles: Planted seeds in intervals and covered them

  • Mechanical Hoe: Increased efficiency of weed removal from soil

  • Cast Iron Plow: Dug furrows for planting more efficiently + made with interchangeable parts allowing for easier repair and reproduction

  • Colombian exchange: led to the increase of Food through exchange

  • Innovations: Including methods like crop rotation, seed drills, mechanical hoes, and cast iron plows that enhanced productivity despite reduced rural labor.

  • Potatoes: Important for peasantry

    • Nutritious and easy to grow

    • Half an acre could feed a family for a who year long

  • Introduction of new foods such as avocado, squashes, and Beans expanded European diets leading to longer lifespans and better health

Economic Developments

  • During this period. Labor and trade were increasingly freed from orignal restrictions imposed by governments + corporate entities

    • Occurred most dramatically in England

  • Prior to this period, workers were paid if they were part of the Guild which had its own authority Structure

    • Controlled prices and kept them high benefiting the elite and not the workers

  • Due to the rise of Britain’s wool industry, British manufacturers began paying wages directly to workers which limited the influence of Guilds

    • Raised worker’s wages due to them being payed per garment leading to an incentive that increased productivity

  • Cottage Industry: Transition from guild-based production to individual artisans working from home, setting the stage for industrialization.

    • Before the factory became dominant mode of manufacturing goods during the Industrial Revolution, goods for purchase were mainly made in people’s homes

    • Putting out system: merchants and entrepreneurs would buy raw materials then pay wages to various people to transform raw materials into finished goods

    • Laid foundation for industrialization in the next century

    • Increased the number of workers, especially in rural villages who could earn wages and sustain their family

  • Growth in market economy led to increasing demand for manufactured goods

    • Push to get manufacturing out of people’s homes and into factories

  • Emergence of Factories: Beginning with textile production leading to increased specialization and efficiency.

    • Powered by water and need to be built around rivers and streams

    • Water Frame: Richard Archery’s invention which was a wheel that was turned by moving power which would power machines creating clothing and fabric

  • Cottage Industry set the stage for this

    • Merchants would bring their goods from one set of workers to the next

    • This house weaved fabrics, the next would dye it, etc

    • Division of labor intensified in the factory and all that put together led to an expansion of demand for manufactured textiles

  • Financial Innovations: Rise of venture capital, insurance, and banking institutions to support industrial investment.

  • Insurance: for a monthly premium, insurance companies would recoup an entrepreneur’s losses if something catastrophic occurred

    • Led entrepreneur’s, especially in England to gain confidence to invest money into factories and growing inventories of goods for sale

  • Rose of Specialty Banks in Venture Capital

    • Prior to 1750, if an entrepreneur wanted to build a factory, they must borrow money from family or already have that money

    • With the explosion of commerce due to the rise of the factory system, specialty banks arose which kept only some of the money people deposited and loaned the rest out as venture capital to be paid back with interest

    • Venture Capital: if you wanted to start a factory, banks gave you money to do it

Mercantilism and Global Trade

States Economic change

  • Europeans are going to control the worldwide economy during this period which will contribute significantly to agricultural revolution and consumer revolution

    • This occurred through mercantilist policies

  • Mercantilism is a state driven economic system

    • Goal was to increase a country’s store of gold and silver by maintaining a favorable balance of trade

    • Louis XIV’s finance minister: John Baptiste Colbert

    • Key driver was establishment of colonies because they valuable sources of raw materials for parent countries + people who lived there could buy processed goods produced from raw materials

  • Europe dominated world economy due to increased demand of new world products such as sugar, rice, and cotton

    • Colonial plantation owners needed more laborers to meet demands and harvest their crops

      • Indigenous laborers died off due to European disease + ran away

        • To solve this, they turn to African enslaved Laborers which increased food supply in Europe

  • African laborers were stolen from their homes, forced into slave ships that had to endure the Middle Passage

    • Africans faced months of disease and brutality on the ship and their demise continued upon arriving to plantation fields

  • Triangular Trade: Merchants began on the west coast of Africa to buy enslaved laborers, traded them in the Caribbean for sugar molasses, then went to the colonies in North America to trade them for rum and the cycle repeated

  • Enslaved labor kept prices low leading to Global trade to establish a Consumer Culutre in Europe

    • Low prices led to more purchases of goods

    • Bought Sugar, textiles, cotton, silk

    • tobacco trade became a massive industry