Individual Differences and Traits

Learning Objectives for Individual Differences and Traits

• Explain the elements and impact of individual difference characteristics in leadership.

• Discuss the role demographic characteristics play in leadership.

• Identify the impact of values on leadership.

• Present the relationship between abilities and skills and leadership, including emotional intelligence and creativity.

• Highlight the role of key personality traits relevant to leadership, including:     - The Big Five.     - The proactive personality.     - Type A personality.     - Self-monitoring.     - The dark triad.

• Be able to use individual characteristics appropriately.

Individual Differences Framework

• Early Research Focus: Early research attempted to identify and label enduring personality characteristics known as personality traits.

• Trait Importance: The more consistent the characteristic is over time and the more frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the more important the trait is in describing the individual. Examples include being shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid.

• Modern Theory Perspective: Traits may matter, but a single trait or collection of traits does not determine who will become a leader or their effectiveness. Modern theorists consider the complex interaction among traits, behaviors, and situational characteristics, such as the expectations of followers.

• Determinants: Heredity and environment are the two primary determinants of individual characteristics.

• Major Categories of Difference: Four major individual difference characteristics affect leadership style:     1. Demographic factors.     2. Values.     3. Abilities and skills.     4. Personality traits.

Behavioral Range and Comfort Zones

• Behavioral Zone of Comfort: Each individual characteristic provides a range of behaviors that come naturally and feel comfortable because they reflect individual characteristics.

• Zone of Discomfort: Behaving outside the comfort zone is difficult, requires practice, and in some cases, might not be possible. However, learning and growth occur by moving into zones of discomfort.

• Stability and Situational Cues:     - Although characteristics are stable, people can behave in ways inconsistent with their personality, values, and attitudes.     - Loosely Structured Situations: When situations provide little guidance, a person's individual characteristics have a strong impact.     - Strong Situational Cues: When cues signal expected and appropriate behaviors, most people behave according to those cues regardless of their personality traits.

Demographic Characteristics of Leaders

• Homogeneity in U.S. Leadership: A $1989$ study of $800$ U.S. executives revealed that business leaders are a homogeneous group. They share similarities in:     - Birthplace.     - Religion (Religious people).     - Education (CEOs were considerably more educated).     - Social class.     - Gender (All were males in the cited study).     - Race.

• Impact of Homogeneity: Homogeneity may negatively affect the ability to innovate and be creative.

• Behavioral Impact: Factors such as age and ethnic background are individual difference characteristics that may affect behavior and leadership style to some extent.

Values and Value Systems

• Definition: Values are long-lasting beliefs about right and wrong and what is worthwhile and desirable. They affect how leaders think and lead.

• Value System: The way a person organizes and prioritizes values constitutes their value system.

• Culture as a Basis: Culture is the foundation of a person's values.     - Individualistic Cultures: Leaders rate personal achievement and recognition highly. Organizations target individuals for rewards. Individuality and entrepreneurship are respected.     - Collectivist Cultures: Higher value is placed on the community and lower value on the individual. It involves values of sacrifice for the group (e.g., Japanese Culture).

Generational Differences in the United States

• The Traditionalists (GI Generation): Age $60+$ (born in $1940s$ or before).     - Influences: Depression-era parents, post-Depression period, World War II, Big Band music.     - Values: Hard work, frugality, patriotism, Protestant work ethic, respect for authority.

• Baby Boomers: Age $50$ to $65$ (born between late $1940s$ and $1960s$).     - Influences: World War II parents, Korean and Vietnam wars, Kennedy assassination, moon landing, rock & roll, Woodstock, cold war, energy crisis.     - Values: Nonconformity, idealism, self-focus, distrust of establishment, happiness and peace, optimism, involvement.

• Baby Busters: Age $40$ to $50$ (born between the $1960s$ and $1970s$).     - Influences: Early hippies, post-Vietnam era, Watergate, The Beatles, Grateful Dead, Jimmy Hendrix.     - Values: "The Yuppies," "me" generation, ambitious, material comfort, success-driven, stressed out.

• Generation Xers: Age $30$ to $40$ (born between $1970s$ and $1980s$).     - Influences: Peaceful era, fall of communism, Iran hostage crisis, recession, Bill Clinton, AIDS, MTV, The Eagles, Michael Jackson.     - Values: Enjoyment of life, jaded, latchkey kids, single-parent family, desire for autonomy and flexibility, self-reliance, spirituality, diversity, balance of work and personal life.

• Millennials or Nexters: Under $30$ (born after the mid-$1980s$).     - Influences: Parental focus, Oklahoma bombings, $9/11$, school shootings, globalization, terrorism threat, first black president, Internet and media, tech-savvy, Lady Gaga, Kanye West.     - Values: Flexibility, choice, socially conscious, meaningful experiences/work, diversity, achievement, tolerance, and openness.

Values and Ethics in Leadership

• Definition of Ethics: A person's concept of right and wrong.

• Relativist View: What is right or wrong depends on the situation or the culture ("When in Rome, do as the Romans do"). For example, a U.S. manager might consider bribing a Thai official if it is generally accepted in Thailand.

• Universalist View: Some things are right or wrong regardless of context and situation. For example, a U.S. oil company manager might appoint a female manager in Saudi operations based on U.S. laws of equal opportunity, despite potential cultural friction.

• Complex Issues: Leaders face complex ethical issues regarding gifts, bribes, or kickbacks which may be considered acceptable in some regions but are unethical/illegal under U.S. law.

Abilities and Skills

• Ability (Aptitude): A natural talent for doing something mental or physical (e.g., running, drawing, thinking fast, intelligence, creativity). Abilities are somewhat stable over time.

• Skill: An acquired talent developed for a specific task. Skills change with training and experience.

• Trainable Leadership Skills: While you cannot train natural aptitude, you can train leaders in:     - Communication.     - Emotional Intelligence.     - Strategic Thinking and planning.     - People management and motivation.     - Change management.     - Persuasion and Influence.

• Leadership Focus: The primary focuses are intelligence and creativity (abilities), and technical, interpersonal, and cognitive skills.

Intelligence and Leadership

• Cognitive Ability: Leading requires the ability to remember, collect and integrate information, analyze problems, develop solutions, and evaluate alternatives.

• Limits of Intelligence: Intelligence is important but not sufficient. Situations requiring interpersonal skills might see highly intelligent leaders struggle with communication and motivation.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Creativity in Leadership

• Importance: A $2010$ IBM survey of $1,500$ executives in $60$ countries identified creativity as the most crucial factor for future success.

• Definition: Process of bringing into reality something novel and useful (divergent or lateral thinking). It involves making things work better, not just doing the unusual.

• Lateral Thinking: Moving away from the linear approach of rational decision-making.

• Creative Leader Characteristics:     1. Perseverance and Self-confidence: Persevering in the face of obstacles and strong belief in ideas.     2. Willingness to take risks: Taking moderate to high risks rather than extreme risks.     3. Willingness to grow/Openness: Willing to try new methods and experiences.     4. Tolerance of ambiguity: Tolerating lack of structure and unclear answers.

• Expertise: Creative leaders must also possess considerable technical expertise to guide followers through creative decisions.

Skills and Career Progression

• Progression: As leaders move up, they rely less on technical skills and more on interpersonal and conceptual skills.

• Top Executives: Require high problem-solving skills to analyze internal/external environments and make strategic decisions.

• Situational Impact: The need for specific skills depends on the organization type, leadership level, follower needs, and the task.

• Lag Time: There is often a lag time between learning skills and translating them into behavior.

Personality Traits and Leadership

• Definitions of Traits: Psychological characteristics that develop early in life, are hard to change, are stable over time/situations, and make a person unique.

• Kirkpatrick and Locke ($1991$): Traits are a "precondition" for effective leadership. Traits alone are not enough; experience and exposure allow gifts to bloom.

• Key Leadership Traits: Drive, Business Knowledge, Intelligence, Motivation, Integrity, Self-Confidence.

• Risk of Excess: Excessive traits can be negative.     - Example: Michael Eisner (Disney) failed to retain executives due to an excessive need for control and inability to delegate stemming from his drive.     - Contrast: Bob Iger, his replacement, is described as understated, calm, diplomatic, and collaborative.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

• Extroverts (E): Energized by people; enjoy variety/multitasking.

• Introverts (I): Like working alone/small groups; deliberate pace.

• Sensors (S): Realistic; focus on facts/details and past experience.

• Intuitives (N): Focus on possibilities/big picture; seek innovation.

• Thinkers (T): Use logical analysis; value consistency and fairness.

• Feelers (F): Sensitive and cooperative; decide based on values/impact on others.

• Judgers (J): Organized; like making and sticking to plans.

• Perceivers (P): Keep options open; act spontaneously.

The Big Five Personality Traits

• Performance Links:     - Conscientiousness: Strongest correlation to job performance.     - Extraversion: Second highest correlation; vital for management/sales.     - Ethical Leadership: Related to conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability.     - Agreeableness: Desirable in social situations but not strongly linked to work performance.

• Managerial Implication: No single trait is linked strongly to performance across all jobs. Links to leadership are relatively weak.

Other Key Personality Traits

• Proactive Personality:     - Take control to influence events; attribute positive events to own effort.     - Focus on changing the environment.     - Higher job satisfaction and positive outlook.     - Essential during organizational change.

• Type A Personality Characteristics:     1. Time Urgency: Concern with time, impatience, hurry.     2. Competitiveness: Measuring outcomes against others; winning is a major concern.     3. Polyphasic Behaviors: Doing several things at once.     4. Need for Control: These behaviors aim to provide a sense of control.     - Type B: More relaxed and easygoing.

• Self-Monitoring (SM):     - High Self-Monitors: Able to read environmental/social cues and adjust behavior. Good at impression management, mirroring others, and coping in cross-cultural situations. More adaptive/innovative.

• The Dark Triad: A group of negative traits including:     - Machiavellianism.     - Narcissism: Characterized by grandiosity and being self-preoccupied.     - Psychopathy.     - Sub-traits include being unscrupulous (unprincipled) and cunning (deception).

Applying What You Learn: Dealing with Abusive Bosses

• Emotional Control: Keep your cool; do not react emotionally. Maintain professionalism.

• Behavior Identification: Clearly understand/describe the behavior (e.g., inaccurate feedback, yelling).

• Documentation: Document everything! Keep careful notes of incidents.

• Impeccable Performance: Ensure your work is beyond reproach. Keep track of customer/coworker feedback.

• Non-defensiveness: Respond with level-headed comments without accepting abuse.

• Seek Help: Contact HR if legal ramifications (discrimination, harassment) exist.

• Networking: Maintain strong network and working relationships.

• Chain of Command: Go up the chain as a last resort; provide factual evidence.

• Exit Strategy: Plan for contingencies and look for another position. Do not leave dangerously quick without a plan.

Leadership Challenge and Summary

• Psychological Testing: Validity and reliability vary. Tests should be used for development, not primary assessment.

• Selection Criteria: Hiring should be based on past performance and work behaviors rather than personality tests.

• Concluding Points: No single trait matters most. Any characteristic helping a leader connect with others is desirable. Self-awareness and building on strengths are key to success.

Questions & Discussion

• Scenario: A new employee is transferred to your department. Reputed to be hard to manage, questioning everything, and not "playing well" with others. However, your supervisor thinks she is a star.

• Query: How do you approach the situation? What do you do