(psych 271) module 1 notes

Module Learning Objectives

  • Explain what it means to display abnormal behavior.
  • Clarify how mental health professionals classify mental disorders.
  • Describe the effect of stigma on those who have a mental illness.
  • Outline the history of mental illness.
  • Describe research methods used to study abnormal behavior and mental illness.
  • Identify types of mental health professionals, societies they may join, and journals they can publish their work in.

1.1. Understanding Abnormal Behavior

An Overview of Abnormal Psychology

  • Timeline of Abnormal Psychology:

    • Mid-1900s: Increased examination of nature vs. nurture. Focus was on alleviating suffering.
      • Efforts were made to address patients' responsibility and the need for early intervention, but success was limited.
    • 1930s: Rise of Behaviorism, spearheaded by B.F. Skinner.
      • Human behavior modifications through reinforced rewards and punishments.
      • World seen as a machine obeying physical laws; humans viewed as smaller machines.
    • Late 1800s: Emergence of Psychoanalytic theory.
      • Figures: Freud, Adler, Klein, Jung, Erickson. Focused on curing mental disorders.

  • 1960s: Introduction of Humanistic psychology.

    • Focused on qualitative aspects of human experience and personal fulfillment; prioritized feelings and present experiences.
    • Key psychologists: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

  • 1996: Birth of Positive psychology.

    • Focus on quantitative aspects of happiness and resilience amidst setbacks.
    • Major figure: Martin Seligman.

What is Abnormal Behavior?

  • Definition: A mix of various factors:
    • Personal distress
    • Psychological dysfunction
    • Deviance from social norms
    • Dangerousness to self and others
    • Costliness to society
  • Diagnostic Reference: According to DSM-5, defining all aspects of disorders remains elusive.

Definitions and Clarifications

  • Dysfunction:
    • Defined as a "clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning" (p. 20).
  • Distress: Relates to significant conditions leading to physical or mental impairment in social or occupational functionality (p. 20).
  • Deviance: Represents behaviors that contrast cultural norms, which vary with time and context.
  • Dangerousness: Behaviors representing a safety threat; mental disorder does not inherently imply dangerousness (Duty To Warn exception to confidentiality).

Economic Implications of Mental Illness

  • Statistics:
    • Depression ranks as the top cause of disability globally (National Alliance on Mental Illness).
    • Economic impact of serious mental illnesses in the US is up to $193 billion annually.
    • Suicide is the 10th leading cause of death in the US; 90% of suicides involve an underlying mental disorder.
    • 37% of students aged 14+ diagnosed with mental disorders drop out of school.
    • 70% of youth within the justice system face at least one mental disorder.
    • Global costs of mental illness were about $2.5 trillion in 2010, projected to reach $6 trillion by 2030.

More Definitions

  • Abnormal Psychology: Scientific study aimed at predicting, explaining, diagnosing, identifying causes, and treating maladaptive behaviors.
  • Psychopathology: Scientific examination of psychological disorders.
  • Mental Disorders: Characterized by dysfunction leading to distress or impaired functioning and conflicting with social or cultural expectations.

1.2. Classifying Mental Disorders

Classifying Mental Disorders

  • Clinical description: Information about thoughts, feelings, and behaviors related to mental disorders, including causes, course, and treatment avenues.
  • Presenting Problem: The prompting issue for a patient seeking help.
  • Epidemiology: Study of the incidence and causes of diseases in different populations (schools, neighborhoods, cities, countries).

Measuring Occurrence: Incidence vs. Prevalence

  • Incidence: New cases within a population over a specific timeframe; typically lower than prevalence.
  • Prevalence: Proportion of the population with a mental disorder.
    • Point Prevalence: Proportion with the disorder at a specific time.
    • Period Prevalence: Proportion at any point during a defined time span.
    • Lifetime Prevalence: Proportion of individuals who have experienced the disorder at any point in their lives.

More Definitions

  • Comorbidity: Simultaneous occurrence of two or more mental disorders; 45% of those with a disorder experience this.
  • Etiology: The causes of the disorder (social, biological, psychological).
  • Course: The pattern of a disorder, categorized as acute, chronic, or time-limited.
    • Prognosis: Expected progression based on the disorder and patient factors.
  • Treatment: Procedures aimed at modifying abnormal behaviors into normal ones.

1.3. The Stigma of Mental Illness

Understanding Stigma

  • Stigma: Negative stereotypes and discrimination against those with mental disorders, often arising from social cognition.
    • Social Cognition: The process of gathering and interpreting information about the social world.
    • Sensation and Perception: Initial detection and assigning meaning to sensory inputs.
    • Schema: A blueprint of beliefs about particular groups, leading to stereotypes. Discrepancies from schemas can lead to misunderstandings and inflexibility.

Social Identity Theory & Stigma Types

  • Social Identity Theory: Simplistic categorization of social groups leads to in-groups and out-groups; out-group homogeneity effects create prejudice and discrimination.
  • Types of Stigma:
    • Public Stigma: Society's negative stereotypes affecting job prospects (e.g., discrimination against employers).
    • Label Avoidance: Individuals avoid seeking help due to fear of being labeled.
    • Self-Stigma: Internalization of negative identity leading to self-discrimination.
    • Courtesy Stigma: Stigma experienced by individuals associated with those who have mental disorders.

Importance and Impact of Stigma

  • Consequences of stigma include, but aren’t limited to, work-related discrimination, elevated suicide rates, reluctance to seek assistance, and greater social distance from the afflicted.

Strategies to Combat Stigma

  • Educational Approaches: Presenting mental illness as treatable, enhancing recovery optimism.
  • Legislation: Key laws include Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (2010), Mental Health Parity Act (2008), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990).

1.4. The History of Mental Illness

Historical Overview

Prehistoric and Ancient Beliefs
  • Treatment Methods:
    • Trephination: Using a stone tool to create an opening in the skull for evil spirits to escape.
    • Exorcism: Religious ceremonies to expel spirits.
    • Supernatural explanations, attributing abnormal behaviors to demonic or spiritual causes prevailed.
Greco-Roman Thought
  • View on Mental Illness: Seen as akin to physical illnesses with origins in brain pathology.
  • Key Figures:
    • Hippocrates: Proposed three mental illness categories: melancholia, mania, and phrenitis, based on misbalanced bodily humors.
    • Plato: Believed mentally ill should not be punished.
  • Treatment Strategy: "Contrariis contrarius" - utilizing contrasting stimuli for treatment.
The Middle Ages (500-1500 AD)
  • Demonic Possession Theory: Prevalent belief leading to religious exorcisms and extreme treatments (beatings, execution).
  • Mass Madness: Large groups demonstrating similar symptoms indicative of societal hysteria (e.g., dancing mania).
The Renaissance (1500-1700s)
  • Humanism: Focus on human welfare and individuality, establishing asylums for the mentally ill as initial humane care.
  • Asylum Conditions: Initially benign, later deteriorated due to overcrowding (e.g., Bethlem Hospital).
Reform Movement (1700-1800s)
  • Moral Treatment Movement: Respectful and humane care focused on individual needs declined due to staffing issues and funding shortages.
  • Key Figures:
    • Francis Pinel: Improved asylum conditions in France.
    • William Tuke: Founded the York Retreat, influencing asylum improvements.
    • Benjamin Rush: Advocated for humane treatment in the US but utilized outdated methods.
    • Dorothea Dix: Key proponent of mental hygiene in the US.
The 20th-21st Centuries
  • Biological/Somatogenic Perspective: Emil Kraepelin’s research led to modern classification systems (e.g., DSM).
  • Psychological/Psychogenic Perspective: Emotional factors causing disorders, early proof through hypnotism.

Present Trends and Findings

  • National Comorbidity Study Results (2001-2003):
    • 46% of participants experienced psychiatric disorders; most common were major depression and alcohol abuse.
    • Gender and race differences in the prevalence and help-seeking behaviors.
    • Significant reliance on psychiatric medications and a push for preventative approaches.

Multicultural Psychology

  • Definition: Examines variations among groups to mitigate biases across race, culture, and gender.
  • Guidelines: Include awareness of biases, incorporating multicultural sensitivity into education and practice, and ensuring ethical research.

1.5. Research Methods in Psychopathology

The Scientific Method

  1. Identify a research question through literature review.
  2. Formulate a testable hypothesis to explore.
  3. Design and conduct an experiment to collect data.
  4. Interpret findings with meaningful statistics.
  5. Communicate findings for replication.

Research Methods

Naturalistic Observation
  • Study of behavior in natural settings.
    • Advantage: Ecologically valid findings.
    • Disadvantage: Time-consuming; observer presence might alter behavior.
Laboratory Observation
  • Controlled environments for behavior observation.
    • Advantage: Using advanced equipment.
    • Disadvantage: Observer influence.
Case Studies
  • In-depth descriptions of individual cases.
    • Advantage: Rich detail.
    • Disadvantage: Limited generalizability.
Surveys/Self-Reports
  • Questionnaires assessing psychological constructs.
    • Advantage: Quick collection.
    • Disadvantage: Potential biases in responses.
Correlational Research
  • Measures relationships between variables using correlation coefficients.
    • Advantage: Broad applicability.
    • Disadvantage: Correlation does not imply causation.
Experiments
  • Controlled studies assessing cause-and-effect relationships.

1.6. Mental Health Professionals, Societies, and Journals

Types of Professionals

  • Clinical Psychologists: Diagnose and treat; can prescribe in some states.
  • School Psychologists: Similar to clinical but focuses on educational settings.
  • Counseling Psychologists: Primarily aid with adjustment issues and milder mental health conditions.
  • Clinical Social Workers: Engage in therapy and advocacy.
  • Psychiatrists: Medical professionals specializing in mental health, authorized to prescribe medications.
  • Other roles: psychiatric nurse practitioners, occupational therapists, and specialized counselors.

Professional Societies and Journals

  • Key Societies:
    • Society of Clinical Psychology (APA Division 12)
    • Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (APA Division 53)
    • American Academy of Clinical Psychology
  • Important Journals:
    • Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice
    • Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology

Review Questions

Module 1.1

  1. What is the disease model and what problems existed with it? What was the intention of overcoming its limitations?
  2. Can we adequately define normal behavior? What about abnormal behavior?
  3. What aspects comprise the American Psychiatric Association’s definition of abnormal behavior?
  4. What is the economic cost associated with mental illness?
  5. Define abnormal psychology.
  6. What constitutes psychopathology?
  7. How is identified mental disorders defined?

Module 1.2

  1. Why is classification important in the study of mental disorders?
  2. What does a clinical description entail?
  3. How are occurrences investigated?
  4. What is a mental illness's etiology?
  5. Explain the relationship between course and prognosis.
  6. What constitutes treatment and who typically seeks it?

Module 1.3

  1. How does social cognition inform our understanding of stigmatization?
  2. Define stigma; describe its three forms. What is courtesy stigma?
  3. What are the impacts of stigma on those affected?
  4. Is stigma prevalent within the mental health community? What can be implemented to address it?
  5. What strategies are available to reduce stigma?

Module 1.4

  1. How has societal perception of mental illness evolved over time?
  2. Compare moral treatment with mental hygiene movements.
  3. Differentiate between biological (somatogenic) and psychological (psychogenic) perspectives.
  4. Assess contemporary trends regarding drug treatment, deinstitutionalization, managed care, multicultural psychology, prescription rights for psychologists, and prevention science.

Module 1.5

  1. Define the scientific method and identify its component steps.
  2. Distinguish between theory and hypothesis.
  3. Identify the three cardinal features of science relevant to mental disorders.
  4. Outline five research designs applicable in psychology, detailing strengths and limitations.
  5. Why is multi-method research advantageous?

Module 1.6

  1. Provide an overview of key mental health professionals, including degrees, training, and medication prescribing rights.
  2. Summarize professional societies and journals pertaining to clinical psychology and related fields.