Period 1 –The Global Tapestry 1200-1450 CE

SUMMARY OF THE PERIOD

         As the Classical Period drew to a close, the large empires collapsed and successor states began to take shape in various places. Feudalism had replaced the once massive Western Roman Empire while the Byzantine continued on, with some success, in the East at Constantinople. The most significant change marking the beginning of the Post-Classical Period was the birth, rise and rapid expansion of Islam. Founded in the 7^th century in the Arabian Peninsula by the Prophet Muhammad, Islam built upon Jewish and Christian monotheism and its adherents soon began building a large empire known as the Caliphates. The Umayyad caliphate originally expanded with its capital at Damascus, but was replaced within a century by the Abbasid caliphate with its capital at Baghdad. The theocratic government of the caliphate mixed Islamic tradition with political control of a very large area of the Middle East, North Africa, Persia and Central Asia. Additionally, Islam had a positive attitude/disposition towards merchants and commerce, which helped to expand and facilitate commercial interactions on an even greater scale in the Post-Classical Period.

         In the height of the Post-Classical Period, around 1000 CE, long-distance trade was booming (Silk, Sand, Sea). The Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea (Sea), the Trans-Saharan routes (Sand), and Silk Roads (Silk) were major zones of interaction. Luxury goods and raw materials were exchanged as far away as East Africa to East Asia. With the collapse of the Han Dynasty, after nearly 300 years of decentralized rule known as the Three Kingdoms, China was reorganized by the Sui Dynasty, which after constructing the Grand Canal, quickly collapsed and was replaced by the Golden Age of the Tang Dynasty. After major commercial and technological advancements, the Song Dynasty, concentrated in Southern China replaced the Tang. In Africa, the gold and salt deposits in West Africa gave rise to a series of kingdoms known as the Sudanic Kingdoms, most notably Mali, which adopted Islam, generating greater commercial interactions with the Islamic North Africa and the Middle East. Islam and commerce also spread to the East Africa Coast, which created a syncretic language known as Swahili, combining the Bantu speakers indigenous to Africa with Arabic, the language of Islam. These were massive cultural, technological, and commercial interactions that gave rise to even greater achievements. Due to Islamic expansion into the Holy Lands of Palestine and to the recent split between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church, the Crusades were carried out, beginning in the 12^th century and lasting for several hundred years. Ultimately, this facilitated Western Europe’s emergence from the decentralized and isolated feudal state it had been in since the fall of the Western Roman Empire.  As connections were reestablished, the Classical Greco-Roman culture reemerged into Western Europe, in a cultural revival known as the Renaissance.  

         Starting around 1200 CE, Central Asian pastoral tribes, notably the Mongols and the Turks led massive campaigns of conquest throughout Eurasia, briefly disrupting much of the commercial activity. However, their massive empires and efforts at security would bring forth a new fervor of activity along the Silk Roads, most famously as part of the Pax Mongola. Much like the Classical Period however, as connections were reestablished, disease spread, most deadly in the Bubonic Plague or the Black Death that swept across Eurasia in the 14^th century. Meanwhile, the Aztec in Central America and the Incas in Andean South America had also built large empires starting in the 12^th century. As a result of the commercial and technological connections and innovations, exploration increased in the 14^th and 15^th century, with the voyages of Zheng He, and the travels of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta. This would set the stage for the famous voyages of Vasco da Gama, Bartolomeo Dias and Christopher Columbus in search of the rich spice islands of South, Southeast and East Asia.

Key Concept 1.1. Expansion and Intensification of Communication and Exchange Networks

Big Picture: Although Afro-Eurasia and the Americas remained separate from one another, this era witnessed a deepening and widening of old and new networks of human interaction within and across regions. The results were unprecedented concentrations of wealth and the intensification of cross-cultural exchanges. Innovations in transportation, state policies, and mercantile (trade and organization) practices contributed to the expansion and development of commercial networks, which in turn served as conduits (channel or medium) for cultural, technological, and biological (plants, animals, diseases, and people) diffusion within and between various societies. Pastoral or nomadic groups played a key role in creating and sustaining these networks. Expanding networks fostered greater interregional borrowing, while at the same time sustaining regional diversity. The prophet Muhammad promoted Islam, a new major monotheistic religion at the start of this period. It spread quickly through practices of trade, warfare, and diffusion characteristic of this period.

I.       Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade (there was more trade happening), and expanded the geographical range (trade networks reached more areas of the globe than networks during the Classical period) of existing and newly active trade networks.

A.      Existing trade routes flourished and promoted the growth of powerful new trading cities.

Required examples of existing trade routes: see Classical period (Period 2) for further details

·   The Silk Roads – same as the Classical period, but with new players. Early on, the Abbasid Caliphate and the Tang Dynasty were connected via the Silk Roads. The Silk Roads also witnessed a major revival under the Mongol Empire in the 13^th and 14^th century.

·   The Mediterranean Sea – With the expansion of Islam around the Mediterranean and the exchanges with the Byzantine Empire, Eastern Mediterranean trade continued as from the Classical period, but with several other, influential trading cities joining in, such as Venice and Genoa.

·   The Trans-Saharan – Massive Expansion in the Post-Classical Period. The Sudanic Kingdoms of West Africa (Ghana, Mali, and Songhay) facilitated the camel caravans across the Sahara in the exchange of gold and salt.

·   The Indian Ocean basins – Massive expansion during Post-Classical Period. Arabs, Indians, East Africans (Swahili Coast), Southeast Asians (Srivijaya) and the Chinese were all involved in this massive exchange network. Monsoon winds played a vital role in this network as well.

Required examples of new trading cities:

·   Novgorod – Northwestern Russia and part of the Hanseatic Trade League

·   Timbuktu – Massive commercial and cultural center in West Africa along with Trans-Saharan routes

·   The Swahili city-states  - East African coast part of the Indian Ocean Trade (Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mogadishu)

·   Hangzhou – Chinese city on the Yangtze River Delta. Essential in Chinese and long-distance trade

·   Calicut – Western Coast of India; vital in Indian Ocean Spice Trade

·   Baghdad – Capital of Abbasid Caliphate and Muslim commercial center

·   Melaka – Located on the Strait of Melaka (Malacca) in Southeast Asia; gateway between the Indian Ocean Trade and the South China Sea. Vital in the Spice Trade

·   Venice – City-state heavily involved in the Mediterranean Sea Trade

·   Tenochtitlan – Aztec capital involved in the Turquoise Road trade in Central America

·   Cahokia – Center of the Mississippian peoples of North America along the Mississippi River

B.      Communication and exchange networks developed in the Americas. In the Mississippi River Valley the mound-builders were able to successfully develop a network of exchange centered on the city of Cahokia around modern-day St. Louis, Missouri. Without writing, not much of this is known however, archeological evidence of long-distance trade items shows the network of exchange. In Mesoamerica, the development and conquest by the Aztec Empire in Central America centered on the city of Tenochtitlan.  The Aztec created networks for trade and tribute that spanned from modern-day Southern Mexico to modern-day New Mexico (trade with the Anasazi).  This network has come to be called the Turquoise Road, as the Anasazi could obtain the turquoise, which was in high demand in Central Mexico. In the Andes, the Inca Empire never fully developed a market economy. However, local production and the central government’s facilitating the exchange of goods allowed goods to move throughout the Andes on a highly developed network of roads and bridges throughout the mountains.

C.      The growth of interregional trade in luxury goods (expensive commodities for elites) was encouraged by significant innovations in previously existing transportation and commercial technologies, including more sophisticated caravan organization; use of the compass (developed for navigation during the Song Dynasty), astrolabe (a device used to determine the line of latitude someone was traveling on, initially developed by Classical Greeks, but greatly improved upon by Islamic merchants), and larger ship designs (such as Chinese junks, which were enormous) in sea travel; and new forms of credit and monetization. The compass and the astrolabe were essential in the development and flourishing of Indian Ocean Trade. These provided more efficient means of travel, therefore helped increase profits.

Required example of luxury goods:

·   Silk and cotton textiles – China continued to be a major producer of Silk (sericulture), however, India, and the Byzantine had access the technology of sericulture and became major producers in their area. India also produced fine cotton textiles.

·   Porcelain – Abundant food production in China (Champa rice) allowed for greater specialization of labor. By firing glazed pottery, high quality porcelain was created, which was then found on wealthy tables throughout Eurasia, leading to the porcelain being called “China” or “Chinaware.”

·   Spices – South and Southeast Asia continued to produce and export spices, such as cinnamon, pepper, cloves, and nutmeg. Additionally, salt production for markets in South Asia and West Africa was a major luxury good, literally worth its weight in gold.

·   Precious metals and gems – iron and steel production in India increased, iron raw materials were exported from the Swahili Coast, Gold from West Africa, and Chinese steel production increased. Gems, such as rubies, sapphires, emeralds and diamonds were exported from South Asia.

·   Slaves – Domestic slavery continued to be common across Eurasia: Muslim domestic slavery in Southeast Asia, female enslavement for concubines throughout the Middle East and Central Asia, as well as continued slavery in the Byzantine Empire and the West African Sudanic Kingdoms.

·   Exotic animals – like other luxury goods, exotic animals and their furs were often high-end commodities. Any animal not indigenous to a particular area can be considered exotic, and therefore highly profitable.

Examples of caravan organization: Overland trade was typically carried out in caravans, or groups of merchants that traveled together for protection. This could be with horses, camels or any other pack animal.

·   Caravanserai – as part of the growing Islamic trade networks, caravanserai were established to house and protect traveling caravans. These were essentially rest stops throughout the Middle East, Persia and Central Asia. Placed roughly one day’s journey apart, they provided comfort and peace of mind for merchants and caravans as a whole.

·   Camel saddles – By 600 CE, camel saddles had become standard in the Sahara, and camels had replaced horses as the preferred beast of burden in the Trans-Saharan Trade.

Examples of new forms of credit and monetization

·       Bills of exchange – During the Tang and Song Dynasties, because precious metals ran short due to the increased volume of trade, merchants and banks began using “flying cash” or letters of credit.  Eventually paper money developed, produced and managed by the state, with serial numbers and warnings and punishments for counterfeiting.

·       Credit – As institutional banking grew, credit became more common. Banks would provide investment money in the form of credit to businesses and joint-business ventures, and it gave merchants and business more confidence, furthering help increase local and long-distance trade throughout Eurasia.

·       Checks – Checks allowed businesses and individuals to have money deposited in one place and use the check to make purchases somewhere else, removing the need to coinage or cash, having greater protection when making transactions since there was less fear of losing your money.

·       Banking houses – While banks had been around in previous periods, the development in Islamic banking was on a much larger scale and provided a more extensive range of services than did their predecessors. By lending money (credit) to entrepreneurs, brokering investments, exchanging currencies and honors letters of credit, later to become known as checks, merchants and entrepreneurs could expand their business ventures.

D.      Commercial growth was also facilitated by state practices, including the Inca road system (see above) trading organizations, and state-sponsored commercial infrastructures like the Grand Canal in China. The Grand Canal was constructed by the Sui Dynasty in China during the 6^th century CE. This Canal connected the Yellow River (Huang He) and the Yangtze River, and allowed for greater commercial exchanges inside of China between the manufacturing and agricultural areas.

Examples of state practices: The course is trying to emphasize that at times, public/government practices helped facilitate commercial exchange, not just private enterprise.

·   Minting of coins – all empires mint coins. This is an essential part of integrating the economy. This facilitates easier commercial exchanges. Typically these are made of precious metals, such as gold, silver and copper.

·   Use of paper money – The Chinese, who first developed the printing of paper, also saw the first printing and issuing of paper money. The Song Dynasty (the state) used paper money, very similar to modern money, to further commercial exchange.

Example of trading organizations: Trading organizations allowed for merchants and banks to pool their money in order to generated trading ventures on a larger scale. They could organize trade within a region, set rules for transactions, punish wrongdoers, and provide goods throughout the region.

·   Hanseatic League – Located in Northern Europe, this was a trade league among Norse and Viking peoples. Novgorod was a major trading city and the Viking longships were effective means of transportation. This area also used, credit, bills of exchange and banking further improving trade.

E.      The expansion of empires facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were drawn into their conquerors’ economies and trade networks.

Required examples of empires:

·   China – After China was able to unify under the Sui Dynasty, the Tang and Song Dynasty conquered vast territories, including parts of Manchuria, Vietnam and Central Asia, as well as had control over the Silla Kingdom in Korea and Under the Tang Dynasty, the Silk Roads were revived and the tributary status of non-Chinese states was reorganized, however, commercial exchanges as a whole increased throughout East Asia.

·   The Byzantine Empire – as a focal point of trade, Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire was able to build and thrive on trade in Western Eurasia, with Russia, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, North Africa and Central Asia. By levying taxes and customs duties on trade goods, the Byzantine could incorporate large areas into their trading network. Also used banking and business partnerships to help create and build further commercial exchanges.

·   The Caliphates – The Caliphates (most notably the Abbasid) created by far the most complex business and banking institutions in the Post-Classical World. With massive banking in Baghdad, as well as bills of exchanges, the development of the modern checking system helped push trade to even further distances.  Islam’s positive attitude towards trade also played a major role in pushing for these advancements.

·   The Mongols – Mongols expansion in the 13^th and 14^th century connected nearly all of Eurasia in a trading network, known as the Pax Mongola, on the Silk Roads. Mongol leaders issued passports to protect merchants throughout the land and exacted tribute from vast areas.

II.     The movement of peoples caused environmental and linguistic effects. Major migrations in the Post-Classical Period included the Bantu migrations in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Arab migrations in the Middle East, the Turkic migrations in Asia, Polynesian migrations in Oceania, and Vikings in Europe.  These migrations facilitated the spread of languages as well as agricultural techniques that led to more changes in the environments of the areas reached by the new techniques.

A.      The expansion and intensification of long-distance trade routes often depended on environmental knowledge and technological adaptations to it. Without proper knowledge and the necessary technology to adapt to the environment, long-distance trade would have been impossible in new environments. This is particularly important when understanding desert climates in the Sahara and Central Asia, monsoon seasons in the Indian Ocean, and wind and ocean currents in the Pacific.

Examples of environmental knowledge and technological adaptations:

·   The way Scandinavian Vikings used their longships to travel in coastal and open waters as well as in rivers and estuaries. Viking longships (image right) were very successful in ocean-going travel, at one point reaching North America, but settled in Iceland and Greenland. Additionally, their shallow-draft allowed them to be rowed up rivers, facilitating inland trade, and was light enough that they could be carried by the Vikings across land when needed.

·   The way the Arabs and Berbers adapted camels to travel across and around the Sahara – camel saddles and camel caravans were developed and facilitated by the nomadic Berber peoples of North Africa. Berbers could often serve as guides across the Sahara for large camel caravans.

·   The way Central Asian pastoral groups used horses to travel in the steppes – Central Asian pastoral peoples relied on horses for most of their way of life. Horse saddles, stirrups and the bow and arrow, along with portable housing allowed the pastoral people to adapt and survive in the harsh climates of Central Asia.

B.      Some migrations had a significant environmental impact. Whether by agricultural practices, by the introduction of new food crops or by significant urbanization, humans and their practices have always had environmental impacts.

Required examples of migration and their environmental impact:

·   The migration of Bantu-speaking peoples who facilitated transmission of iron technologies and agricultural techniques in Sub-Saharan Africa. Bantu languages, slash-and-burn agriculture, and iron metallurgy all spread through Sub-Saharan Africa as a result of the Bantu migrations. These migrations took place over a 1000-year process of start-and-go migration from West Africa to the East and South.

·   The maritime migrations of the Polynesian peoples who cultivated transplanted foods and domesticated animals as they moved to new islands – These migrations led to the spread of the cutting down of rainforests for human habitation and the practice of agriculture for coconuts, bananas and the planting of tuber plants and roots. These were tough ecosystems and human population on many islands remained small with limited technological development.

C. Some migrations and commercial contacts led to the diffusion of languages throughout a new region or the emergence of new languages. Migrations and larger trade networks were enhanced by language diffusion, often developing into lingua franca, or universal language, of business. Most notable was the diffusion of Arabic throughout the Middle East and used as business in the Indian Ocean.

Examples of the diffusion of languages, either from the list below or an example of your choice:

·   The spread of Bantu languages including Swahili – Bantu languages spread along with the migration of the Bantu speakers in Sub-Saharan Africa. When Bantu and Arabic met in East Africa, a lingua franca developed across East Africa, helping increase commercial exchanges between East Africa and the Muslim world. Arab/Muslim Diasporic communities in East Africa, such as Zanzibar, helped facilitate this process even further.

·   The spread of Turkic and Arabic languages – Turkic languages were spread primarily through the Turkic migrations from Central Asia to the Middle East. Initially as major participants and facilitators of Silk Roads trade, ultimately, the 11^th – 15^th century migrations into the Middle East spread the language further. Arabic was initially spread by the Arab migrations of the 7^th and 8^th century, however, as Islamic trade increased throughout the Post-Classical Period, Arabic influenced many other languages in the Old World.

III.    Cross-cultural exchanges were fostered by the intensification of existing, or the creation of new, networks of trade and communication. Trade, the typical motivator for interactions, helped facilitate diffusion

A.      Islam, based on the revelations of the prophet Muhammad, developed in the Arabian Peninsula. The beliefs and practices of Islam reflected interactions among Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians with the local Arabian peoples. Muslim rule expanded to many parts of Afro-Eurasia due to military expansion, and Islam subsequently expanded through the activities of merchants and missionaries. Islam, a strictly monotheistic religion, borrowed from Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian ideas about the cosmos, values and the afterlife. Islam is built on the 5 pillars, which include:

·   A testament of faith asserting monotheism and the legitimacy of Muhammad’s message in the Koran.

·   Prayers 5 times a day facing Mecca (the Ka’ba).

·   Almsgiving, or charity, in the form of 2.5% of one’s income.

·   Fasting from sunup to sundown during the month of Ramadan.

·   The Hajj – or a religious pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime.

The Arab expansions and the caliphates that were developed initially spread the Islamic religion. Over time, merchants and trade played a tremendous role in Islamic expansion and many individuals voluntarily adopted Islam, while elites often adopted it to facilitate greater trade, and leaders at times enforced Islam on their subjects. Among the most significant Islamic missionaries were the Sufi Mystics. These mystics focused their efforts on helping the poor and creating a personal relationship with Allah, while having less focus on doctrine than traditional Islamic leaders or theologians, leading to more appeal of Islam among common people.

B.      In key places along important trade routes, merchants set up Diasporic communities where they introduced their own cultural traditions into the indigenous culture. Diasporic communities are communities of people that share a particular culture, heritage, or homeland who relocate to an area outside of their traditionally defined homeland and transplant their culture to their new location. Sometimes these communities can exist in isolation, while other times they are incorporated into the broader community. Typically these communities were founded by men that married local women and had children that carried on their business and cultural traditions, thereby carrying on cultural traditions.

Examples of Diasporic communities:

·   Muslim merchant communities in the Indian Ocean region – As Islamic merchants traveled throughout the Indian Ocean, many set up communities around Islam in new places, such as East Africa in Zanzibar, Southeast Asia, and India. These communities could provide areas of worship, local advice and business opportunities. This helped spread Islam throughout the Indian Ocean Region.

·   Chinese merchant communities in Southeast Asia – Chinese men moved into Southeast Asia, such as Java, the Srivijaya, Champa, Siam and Borneo, married local women and helped facilitate trade.

·   Sogdian merchant communities throughout Central Asia – Sogdian merchants became the dominant facilitators of Silk Roads trade between the Tang Dynasty and the Abbasid Caliphate. It also began the dominant language of trade across the Silk Roads and Central Asia.

·   Jewish communities in the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean basin, or along the Silk Roads – As part of the continuing Jewish Diaspora, begun in the 2^nd millennium BCE, Jewish communities were all across Eurasia, with an incredible ability to retain Jewish traditions and cultural values. Jewish communities, due to lack of access to fertile land, were often forced into urban areas, where they became artisans and businessmen. This made Jews vital to Eurasian trade. Christians, because of their taboo against usury (charging interest), often used Jews as the middle-men for business affairs and transactions.

C.      As exchange networks intensified, an increased number of travelers within Afro-Eurasia wrote about their travels. Their writings illustrate both the extent and the limitations of intercultural knowledge and understanding. Writings by interregional travelers provide historians with tremendous information about the world in which they travelled. These are some of the best accounts of the post-classical world. However, each of these contain serious limitations, due to the cultural biases of the authors.

Examples of interregional travelers:

·   Ibn Battuta - Ibn Battuta was a Muslim traveler from Morocco. He traveled throughout Eurasia’s Muslim lands including North Africa, the Mali Empire, the Swahili Coast, the Middle East, Mongol Central Asia, South and Southeast Asia, and Coastal China. As a very conservative Muslim, he was often bothered by what he considered a lack of tradition (too much syncretism) among Islamic communities he observed (particularly in Sudanic West Africa), and his writings are clouded with these biases, often portraying others in a harsh light.

·   Marco Polo – Marco Polo was a traveler and merchant from Venice in the 13^th and 14^th centuries. Traveling with his father and uncle, he made his way across Asia to China, where he possibly served in the court of Kublai Khan. His writings in The Travels of Marco Polo created a portrait of Eastern Asia that convinced many Europeans of the wealth of the East. Many historians have come to question the truth of Marco Polo’s travels however, due to numerous inaccuracies in the description of China, including never mentioning foot-binding or the Great Wall of China, despite the fact that he claimed to have spent over 20 years there. This debate continues among historians today.

·   Xuanzang – Xuanzang was a Chinese Buddhist monk that lived in the early Tang Dynasty. Frustrated by the lack of original Buddhist texts in China, he took a pilgrimage to India and was able to study under many Buddhist scholar masters, and spent time at the famous University at Nalanda, India.  When he returned, he brought the knowledge he gained during his travel and study to China. More importantly for historians, he recorded his travels through Central Asia and Bengal while journeying to India and his return to China. His travels inspired the Ming Dynasty classical work of literature Journey to the West.

D.      Increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions as well as scientific and technological innovations.

Examples of the diffusion of literary, artistic and cultural traditions:

·   The spread of Christianity throughout Europe – As the Roman Empire collapsed in the late Classical Period, the Roman Catholic Church clergy often provided stability and structure in areas that had lost Roman administration. Furthering the “Christianing” of Europe was the conversion of Germanic Franks to Latin Christianity under their leader Clovis. This advanced Roman Catholic Christianity throughout Western Europe and enhanced the power of the Catholic Church.

·   The influence of Neoconfucianism and Buddhism in East Asia – Neoconfucianism is simply a combination of Confucian values and Buddhist ideas of the cosmos and the soul. As Buddhism diffused into China and the rest of East Asia, it was rejected by many of the traditional Confucian elites. Traditional Buddhist values of celibacy and monastic life contradicted the Confucian emphasis on family and relationships. However, during the Song Dynasty, many Confucian scholars, most notably Zhu Xi, continued to emphasize the traditional Confucian values, but some scholars began to incorporate more metaphysical questions into their writings in a way that reflected the influence of Buddhism in Chinese society, such as the nature of the soul, the reality of the material world and notions of the afterlife. While Neoconfucianism rejected many of the practical tenets of Buddhism, Buddhist views of the world became incorporated into Chinese society.

·   Hinduism and Buddhism into Southeast Asia – brought initially by Indian merchants, many Southeast Asia elites adopted Hinduism or Buddhism, and sometimes both, in an effort to increase trade relations and to reinforce monarchial rule in their territories. Using traditional Hindu texts such as the Ramayana and Buddhist treatises, while maintaining some of the traditional Southeast Asian gods, places such as Funan (modern-day Cambodia and Vietnam), Srivijaya (modern-day Indonesia) and Angkor (modern-day Cambodia), embraced the new religions creating new syncretic forms of religious practice and values.

·   Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia – In Southeast Asia, Islam began through the Diasporic communities, mainly in isolation, but was slowly adopted by elites for better dealings with Muslim merchants. However, most did not adopt Islam exclusively, as many continued to practice Hinduism, Buddhism and/or traditional religions alongside Islam. The Indian Ocean trade was the primary conduit through which this process occurred. In Sub-Saharan Africa, Islam was brought to East Africa via the Indian Ocean trade, while it was brought to West Africa via merchants along the camel caravans of the Trans-Saharan Trade. The leaders of the Sudanic Kingdoms of West Africa, particularly Ghana and Mali, often adopted Islam to improve trade relations and would build mosques and libraries in patronage of Islam. One famous illustration of West African Islamic tradition was the hajj taken by the Mali ruler Mansa Musa. After having gone on the hajj, he increased constructions of mosques, sent students to study Islam in North Africa and established religious schools in Mali to improve the Islamic tradition. However, this was occurring alongside traditional notions of evil-spirits, witchcraft and the use of idols to ward off unwanted spirits.

·   Toltec/Mexica and Inca traditions in Mesoamerica and Andean America – The Toltec were in Central Mexico prior to the arrival of the Mexica people (the Mexica is the name for the Aztec). As the Mexica conquered and displaced the Toltec as the primary power in Central Mexico. The Nahuatl language, the 365-Day solar calendar, and the worship of the “Feathered Serpent” god Quetzalcoatl. In Andean South America, terrace farming, irrigation projects and architectural achievements that begun under the Moche were carried on by the Chimu and ultimately the Incan Empire. The use of quipu record keeping also continued to be the main method used in Andean South America.

Increased cross-cultural interactions (trade, war, diplomacy, migration, missionaries) also resulted in the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions.

Examples of the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions:

·   The influence of Greek and Indian mathematics on Muslim scholars – Indian numeral systems, that became known as “Arabic numerals” (like the number system we use today) greatly increased Muslim knowledge of algebra (an Arabic word) and they built upon the geometry and trigonometry developed by the Classical Greeks. These mathematical developments helped to fuel the increased commerce in the Muslim world. The philosophical ideas of Classical Greece in the form of Plato also played a role in the development of philosophical traditions among Muslim scholars, although with some resistance among other scholars.

·   The return of Greek science and philosophy to Western Europe via Muslim Al-Andalus in Iberia. –         Al-Andalus is the name given to the Muslim-dominated areas of Spain and the Iberian Peninsula. This was the extent of Muslim expansion into Western Europe dating back to the 8^th century CE. Al-Andalus was a relatively peaceful area mixing Muslims, Christians and Jews. Due to the relative peace and prosperity, Greek thought, mostly in the form of Aristotle had been translated into Arabic and circulated in the schools and universities in Spain and around Cordoba.  As the Arabic translations of Aristotle were circulated, several Christian scholars translated them into Latin and they slowly became increasingly available throughout Western Europe. These foundations became the philosophical foundations of the 14^th and 15^th century Renaissance that developed in Western Europe.

·   The spread of printing and gunpowder technologies from East Asia into the Islamic empires and Western Europe – woodblock printing (the precursor to the printing press) was first developed and used during the Tang Dynasty in China for producing Confucian and Buddhist texts. This technology spread by the Silk Roads, most importantly during the Mongol Empire’s Pax Mongola. Printing ultimately spread through India, the Middle East and reached Western Europe by the 15^th century. Additionally, the Mongols helped diffuse gunpowder technology that was also developed in China. Initially used as fireworks, the Mongols were successfully able to use gunpowder-based weapons into their siege weapons. This technology diffused westward across Asia with the Mongol conquests, and Chinese, Arabs and eventually Europeans were able to create more effective gunpowder cannons.  By the Early Modern Period, create hand-held firearms that would bring about tremendous change.

IV.    There was continued diffusion of crops and pathogens, including epidemic diseases like the bubonic plague (germs and diseases) throughout the Eastern Hemisphere along the trade routes.

A.      New foods and agricultural techniques were adopted in populated areas.

Examples of new foods and agricultural techniques:

·   Bananas in Africa – bananas made their way to Africa first from Southeast Asia across the Indian Ocean into Madagascar, ultimately crossing into mainland Africa. Bananas grew incredibly well and helped fuel population growth as well as fueling the Bantu migrations across Sub-Saharan Africa.

·   New rice varieties in East Asia – Introduced from Vietnam, Champa rice, was a fast-ripening rice variety that allowed for twice as much rice production than traditional varieties. This led a population explosion in the Song Dynasty, increased urbanization and technological development.

·   The spread of cotton, sugar, and citrus throughout Dar al-Islam (the Islamic World) and the Mediterranean basin – staple crops such as citrus fruits, luxury goods such as sugar, and industrial crops such as cotton changed the diet and economic activities of the Mediterranean Basin.

Spread of epidemic diseases, including the Black Death (Bubonic Plague), followed the well-established paths of trade and military conquest. In the 14^th century, the successful cross-cultural interactions of the Old World facilitated best by the Mongols helped spread the epidemic diseases across Eurasia. The Black Death would have devastating effects on the populations of China and Western Europe.

Key Concept 1.2. Continuity and Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions

Big Picture: State formation in this era demonstrated remarkable continuity, innovation and diversity in various regions. In Afro-Eurasia, some states attempted, with differing degrees of success, to preserve or revive imperial structures, while smaller, less centralized states continued to develop, such as trading city-states. The expansion of Islam introduced a new concept — the Caliphate — to Afro-Eurasian statecraft. Pastoral peoples, such as the Turks and the Mongols, in Eurasia built powerful and distinctive empires that integrated people and institutions from both the pastoral and agrarian worlds. In the Americas, powerful states, mainly the Aztecs and the Incas, developed in both Mesoamerica and the Andean region.

I.       Empires collapsed (the classical empires, such as Rome, Han and Gupta) and were reconstituted (rebuilt in the design of the classical foundations, but with new developments); in some regions new state forms emerged.

A.      Following the collapse of empires, most reconstituted governments, including the Byzantine Empire and the Chinese dynasties — Sui, Tang, and Song — combined traditional sources of power and legitimacy with innovations better suited to their specific local context. Empires in the Post-Classical period continued many of the Classical imperial designs and innovations, and developed new methods and combined these to create new forms of administration and authority. Therefore, they are known as successor states. The Byzantine Empire developed out of the Eastern Roman Empire. When the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5^th century CE, the Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire continued for 1,000 more years until it collapsed in the 15^th century by the Ottoman Turks. The Chinese Empires, Sui, Tang and Song, continued the dynastic tradition established by the earlier Qin and Han Dynasties.

Examples of traditional sources of power and legitimacy: By traditional sources of power, these are the social, cultural, political and economic structures that have been reinforced by political institutions; however they are much broader than simple institutional developments. These have persisted for thousands of years and continued to provide a great deal of structure for most people’s lives.

·   Patriarchy – Patriarchy, or male-dominated societies, has traditionally provided the center of social and political power in government, in the home and in business. Filial Piety in China and Paterfamilias in Europe were more formalized and articulated than most other societies, but patriarchy was pervasive in agricultural societies, with very few exceptions.

·   Religion – When used in conjunction with politics, religion provides a strong bond for the people and the rulers. Rulers would use religion to justify or legitimize their rule over the people. Religion provides a great deal of traditional structure for political authority and legitimacy. Confucian authority in East Asia, Hindu order in South Asia, Christianity in Europe, and Islam in the Middle East all provided political authority and legitimacy to the empires. Byzantine alignment with Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Tang China’s use of Confucian values and ethics and the Caliphates theocratic rule all use religion specifically to provide greater power and authority as well as legitimacy.

·   Land-owning elites – Land has historically been the primary source of wealth, and since land and wealth is typically passed down to the oldest male (primogeniture), this wealth became hereditary. This traditional social order also provided a great deal of social order, as well was used to justify nobility, or noble blood. This provided a distinction between the commoners/peasants and the elite classes and provided power and legitimacy to the inequality in society and politics.

Examples of innovations:

·   New methods of taxation – The Byzantine Empire developed a system of reward and taxation known as the Theme System in which the central Byzantine government appointed a military governor over a province (theme). These military generals were then in charge of recruiting armies from the local peasantry which strengthened the peasantry, made them a more profitable and reliable source of labor and taxation, which greatly enhanced the power of the Byzantine Empire. Early on in the Tang Dynasty in China, the government developed the equal-field system as a way of equally distributing land and collecting taxation. Attempting to learn from the failures of the collapsed Han Dynasty, the equal-field system tried to prevent land from passing down among families and redistribute it to peasants and families as needed. This would allow for effective taxation systems, prevent consolidation of too much wealth into family hands, and prevent rebellious peasants. It provided effective stability and prosperity in the countryside.

·   Tributary systems – Tributary systems are “taxes” levied on subject peoples by a group that has conquered them. While the tribute paid could be in the form of money, it was typically in the form of goods, slaves, or luxury items. This tribute was paid to show allegiance to the central authority and pay to maintain some level of local autonomy or simply prevent further military conquest. The Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica, the Chinese conquests of Korea and Vietnam, and the Mongol Empire across Eurasia effectively used tribute systems to impose their rule and furnish their central governments with goods from across their territories.

·   Adaptation of religious institutions – The Byzantine Empire effectively aligned the Eastern Orthodox Church with the imperial government. The notion of caesaropapism provided cultural and political power to the Byzantine Emperor. Just as Roman Emperors in the Classical Period had absolute political authority, so too did Byzantine Emperors. Additionally, however, Byzantine rulers had power over the Orthodox Church, and were able to make decisions over church doctrines, teachings and ceremonies. The Song Dynasty had to deal with the growing popularity of Buddhism. The Song Dynasty continued to use Confucian ideas and the printing press to disseminate Confucian writings as well as the promotion of the civil service exam based on Confucian Classics to develop bureaucrats.  The syncretic Neo-Confucianism also enjoyed official sanction under the Song Dynasty until the 20^th century.

B.      In some places, new forms of governance emerged; including those developed in various Islamic states, the Mongol Khanates, city-states, and decentralized government (feudalism) in Europe and Japan.

Examples of Islamic states:

·   Abbasids – The Abbasid Caliphate that developed around Baghdad in the Middle East was a new political development due to its theocratic nature. The ruling caliph not only had absolute political and military authority, but was also the chief judge and religious leader. The use of religious officials in local administration and the use of the Quran and Sharia law created a solidly theocratic state that also allowed the following of other religions, namely “Peoples of the Book” (Christians and Jews) as long as they paid the jizya tax.

·   Muslim Iberia – In Al-Andalus, or Muslim Spain, Muslim rulers (Umayyad) refused to recognize the authority of the Abbasid Caliphate. These rulers, because of the diversity of their population, were much religiously tolerant of the Jewish and Christian population, which led to a cultural flourishing of Ancient Greek, Roman, early Christian, Arab, Islamic and Persian influences. These small, decentralized states were a bridge between the cultural developments in the Islamic world and the feudal societies of Europe.

·   Delhi Sultanates – Turkish conquers into Northern India established the sultanate of Delhi based on Islamic faith. However, because India was a predominately Hindu state, Muslim rule consistently met with Hindu resistance. With very little bureaucratic or administrative institutions, the Delhi Sultans relied on the allegiance of the local Hindu kings and princes. As with most of Indian history, Hinduism kept India decentralized although it was relatively stable because of the rigid caste system that provided social, economic and political order.

Mongol Khanates – The Mongols were ruled by a khan. With the conquest of Eurasia by the Mongols led by Chinggis (Genghis) Khan in the 12^th century, the Mongols established a massive land empire (largest in world history). With the death of Chinggis Khan, the Mongol Empire was divided into 4 Khanates; each khanate was ruled by a lesser khan, while maintaining allegiance to the ultimate khan. The four khanates were the Golden Horde in Russia, the Il-khanate in Persia, the Yuan Dynasty in China and the Chagatai khanate in Central Asia. This loosely unified empire used administrators, bureaucrats and advisors from across Eurasia to help administer the empire. The khanates were almost entirely autonomous, each with very different governing styles, most of them adopted from local traditions. For instance, in China, the Mongols (called the Yuan Dynasty) adopted the Chinese dynastic system mainly under the leadership of Kublai Khan. The Mongols initially rejected the Chinese Confucian order and civil service exam to select bureaucrats in favor of a diverse group of advisors, mainly Buddhists, Muslims, Christians and Daoists.

Examples of city-states: - similar to the development of city-states throughout history, most of these were trading centers with local rule that were tied economically to the larger world. These areas are NEW areas of city-states for the Post-Classical period. City-states had existed before, such as in Mesopotamia, Ancient Greece and the Mayans, but several new areas, mainly because of the expansion of commercial networks, allowed the growth of coastal city-states.

·   In the Italian peninsula – Venice, Genoa and Florence emerged as key centers of trade in the Mediterranean, based on the trade of silk, cotton, wool and spices. The Italian city-states were the bridge between the Byzantine Empire, Western Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.

·   In East Africa – The Swahili city-states of East Africa developed as part of the Indian Ocean trade and the expansion of Islam. Kilwa, Mogadishu and Zanzibar became wealthy trading cities due to navigational developments such as the compass, dhows, the astrolabe and knowledge of the monsoon winds.

·   In Southeast Asia – Southeast Asia was the center of the spice trade in the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea. Melaka, Srivijaya and Makassar were centers for trade connected into the Islamic world.

·   In the Americas – The Mayans on the Yucatan Peninsula developed a system of decentralized city-states that were loosely connected through trading organizations and a common culture. Each area held a local ruler with periods of conquest over neighboring areas.

Decentralized Governments in feudal Europe and Japan – Feudalism is a social and political organization based on the ownership and organization of land. The emphasis is “decentralized” government. In Europe and Japan, numerous leaders would rule over large territories (kings and shoguns). These kings would obtain oaths of fealty from the nobility/daimyo (land-owning class) as vassals. The nobility was responsible for being the local authority over their land, taxing the peasants and serfs and organizing the military class (knights and samurai). This decentralization led to constant fighting among the various kingdoms and Shogunates for power. Most authority rested in the hands of the land-owning class (nobles and daimyos). Codes of honor bound the nobility to the kings/shoguns in Europe known as chivalry, and in Japan as bushido. In Europe, Roman Catholic Christianity also provided cultural glue for society with Shintoism and Buddhism provided that in Japan.

C.      Some states synthesized local and foreign traditions. Synthesizing local and borrowed traditions is also known as syncretism. There were several forms of religious and cultural syncretism in the Post-Classical Period. Neo-Confucianism in China under the Song Dynasty combined the local tradition of Confucianism with the borrowed ideas of Indian and Central Asian Buddhism.

Examples of such synthesis by states:

·   Persian traditions that influenced Islamic states – The earlier Persian empires had set a standard for bureaucratic rule throughout the Middle East. The Abbasid Caliphates used this model to develop educated officials that set moral standards and acted as judges on religious and political issues. Additionally, the role of the caliph was very similar to the role of the Persian shahs. Moreover, literary works, histories, religion and philosophy were often written in Persian.

·   Chinese traditions that influenced states in Japan – During Japan’s early feudal period, known as the Heian Period (794-1185), Japanese traditions were heavily influenced by Chinese culture and politics. Japanese officials kept records in Chinese script, wealthy boys and girls were trained in Chinese language and culture, and Japanese literature played on traditional Chinese themes.

D.      In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems expanded in scope and reach: Networks of city-states flourished in the Maya region and, at the end of this period, imperial systems were created by the Mexica (“Aztecs”) and Inca. Mayan city-states, such as Tikal and Chechen Itza, were political and cultural centers that represent the extending control of the Mayan culture. The Aztecs (Mexica) were able to create a tribute empire centered on Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City) through conquest and extraction of taxes and tribute. Powerful military Emperors, with religious support, used force to subjugate conquered people, and occasionally had massive ceremonies of human sacrifice. The Inca were able to exert control through conquest over the Andes Mountains centered on Cuzco (modern Peru). The effective use of the mit’a labor system as a corvée labor tax and the use of local administrative systems allowed the Inca to exert power of conquered peoples.

II.     Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, including transfers between Tang China and the Abbasids, transfers across the Mongol Empires, transfers during the Crusades, and transfers during Chinese maritime activity led by Ming Admiral Zheng He. While trade is usually the medium of cultural exchange, conflict can also be the cause of exchange, because interactions of any kind provide the possibility of exchange.

Required examples of technological and cultural transfers:

·   Between Tang China and the Abbasids – Arab forces under the Abbasid Caliphate defeated military forces under the Tang Dynasty at the Battle of Talas River in 751 CE. At the battle, the Arab armies took Chinese prisoners who were skilled at paper production. The paper production in the Middle East allowed for greater efficiency and record keeping in Abbasid administration.

·   Across the Mongol empires - As the Mongol conquests connected all of Eurasia, Technological and cultural transfers increased dramatically. Gunpowder and printing technology moved east to west, ultimately becoming extremely important technologies in the Early Modern Period.

·    During the Crusades – The Crusades were an attempt by the Western European Catholic Christians to capture and hold the Holy Lands around Palestine in the Eastern Mediterranean (modern-day Israel). Beginning in 1095, Pope Urban II called the Crusades to capture Holy Land, protect Christians in non-Christian lands or to capture Jerusalem specifically. These lasted for several hundred years from the 11^th to the 15^th century and were largely fought against various Turkic peoples, mostly Muslim. The Crusades facilitate two important changes to Europe. First, these military expeditions were important to connecting Western Europe to Afro-Eurasia trade. While Western Europe was still feudal, this process began a period of commercial exchange that had diminished greatly since the fall of the Roman Empire. Second, it lead to cultural exchange toward Europe, including Islamic literature and hygiene as well as reintroducing Europe to Classical Greek and Roman text which had been gone from Europe since the birth of Christian Europe. This would be the early development of the Renaissance in Europe, centered on those Classical texts and ideas.

·  NeoConfucianism from China to Korea and Japan – NeoConfucianism (discussed earlier) was first introduced to Korea largely during Mongol conquest (Yuan Dynasty). Many Korean thinkers and theologians visited Korea and eventually NeoConfucianism because the official state ideology in Korea. During the Japanese invasions of Korea (16^th century) many Korean NeoConfucian books and scholars were taken to Japan. They influenced Japanese scholars and affected the development of Japanese NeoConfucianism.

·  Maritime activity under Admiral Zheng He - Zheng He was a Chinese navigator who made several voyages sponsored by the early Ming Dynasty. After the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, it wanted to reassert its imperial dominance and prestige in coastal China, Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. As Zheng He traveled, he distributed Chinese goods and silver while receiving various oddities such as giraffes, ostriches, zebras, and ivory. These expeditions, however, were short lived: as both the Ming Emperor Yongle and Zheng He died, the Ming Dynasty began to isolate itself and focus its financial efforts on domestic, imperial control and to rebuilding the Great Wall to prevent further nomadic incursions, although nomadic invasions eventually prevailed in the 17^th century in the form of the Manchus, who established the Qing Dynasty after overthrowing the Ming Dynasty.

Key Concept 1.3. Increased Economic Productive Capacity and Its Consequences

Big Picture: Changes in trade networks resulted from and stimulated increasing productive capacity, with important implications for social and gender structures and environmental processes. Productivity rose in both agriculture and industry. Rising productivity supported population growth and urbanization but also strained environmental resources and at times caused dramatic demographic swings. Shifts in production and the increased volume of trade also stimulated new labor practices, including adaptation of existing patterns of free and coerced labor. Social and gender structures evolved in response to these changes.

I.       Innovations stimulated agricultural and industrial production in many regions. New technologies make production more efficient in agriculture and industry. This efficiency allows for greater profits and makes the goods more affordable, so as the ability to supply those goods increases, quantity demanded will increase

A.      Agricultural production increased significantly due to technological innovations.

Examples of technological innovations:

·   Champa rice varieties – Champa rice varieties were adopted by the mountainous regions of southern China from Vietnam. The Champa rice varieties allowed for more harvests in a growing season, leading to tremendous population growth during the Song Dynasty in China. This increased agricultural production also had environmental consequences with increased terraced farming and also allowed for greater production of manufactured goods such as porcelain and silk.

·   The chinampa field systems – the “floating islands” or chinampas developed by the Aztec allowed for much greater economic productivity in Tenochtitlan. This productivity helped support the expansive military and the power of the Aztec government.

·   Waru waru agricultural techniques in the Andean areas – This form of terrace farming was developed in the tropical areas of Bolivia and Peru to prevent soil erosion from flooding. Mostly used for potatoes.

·   Improved terracing techniques – Southern China and Andean South America improved terrace techniques to improve agricultural productivity.

·   The horse collar – horse collars and horseshoes developed in Europe in the Late Post-Classical Period allowed for more area to be put under cultivation, therefore increasing agricultural production.

B.      Demand for foreign luxury goods increased in Afro-Eurasia. Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; industrial production of iron and steel expanded in China. Crops traditionally located in the Middle East were disseminated throughout the Mediterranean region.  New forms of wheat and rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, and citrus fruits were all became prominent items in Mediterranean diets during the high Middle Ages. Citrus fruits, Asian strains of rice, and cotton were introduced into West Africa. Sugarcane was spread westward by Muslim and Christian merchants and became an extremely valuable commodity grown in the Mediterranean. Sugar production on Mediterranean islands also increased the demand for slave labor.

Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; industrial production of iron and steel expanded in China.

·  China – High-quality porcelain and using the more effective coke instead of coal in their new piston driven furnaces allowed for dramatically stronger and more reliable steel and iron.

·  Persia – had learned silk manufacturing from China and production of exotic rugs for export.

·  India – high-quality cotton textiles, sugar-refining, leather-tanning, stone carving, and carpet weaving. India was also known for production of high-carbon steel, which made excellent weapons.

II.     The fate of cities varied greatly, with periods of significant decline, and with periods of increased urbanization buoyed by rising productivity and expanding trade networks. Urbanization is the process of increasing population in urban areas (cities) as a result of residents from rural areas moving to cities. As urban populations increase, their economic capacity also increases as division of labor and technological developments fuel economic output.

A.      Multiple factors contributed to the declines of urban areas in this period. Urban decline simply means a decrease in the urban population, which decreases its economic activity and isolates it somewhat from the existing trade networks

Required examples of these factors:

·   Invasions – During the Early Post-Classical Period, Western Europe continued to experience the nomadic invasions that led to the feudal system. Peasants would give themselves to serfdom in order to receive the protection of nobles and knights from the nomadic invaders. Vikings, Anglo-Saxons, Magyars, and Mongols continued to wreak havoc and pillage urban populations across Eurasia. The Mongol and Turkic invasions lead to periods of urban decline; however these were usually brief declines and the attacked cities would experience recovery due to the increased connections.

·   Disease – Most importantly, the Black Death, or the Bubonic Plague, wreaked havoc on urban populations in the 13^th and 14^th century. The plague was spread by infected fleas on rats that were transported across the Silk Roads. Europe lost nearly 25% of its entire population and nearly 10 million Chinese were killed by the plague. This plague was facilitated by the Pax Mongola, which created the connections to help spread the disease across Eurasia.

·   The decline of agricultural productivity and the Little Ice Age – From roughly 1300 CE through the Early Modern Period, the earth experienced a “Little Ice Age” in which global temperatures were cooler, leading to longer winters and shorter agricultural seasons. This lead to a decline in agricultural productivity in some areas, despite the technological developments in the period.

B.      Multiple factors contributed to urban revival. Urban revival is simply a period of growth and recovery of cities, which helped improve the economic productivity and connect them into larger trade networks.

Required examples of these factors:

·   The end of invasions – When nomadic invasions ended, populations could focus their efforts on economic advancement rather than just defense and weaponry. Peaceful commercial connections encouraged other economic productions, such as textiles, and when invasions slowed, agricultural lands were safer, helping increase productivity.

·   The availability of safe and reliable transport – safe and reliable transport allows for more effective connections between urban societies. Once again, this tied communities into commercial networks and economic activities become more profitable. Monsoon winds and improved shipbuilding helped port cities and city-states on the Indian Ocean thrive. Camel saddles and Caravanserai provided easier access to long-distance trade and Central Asian cities took advantage of these new connections. Adaptations to camels and camel caravans also provided reliable transportation across the Sahara Desert, leading to major cultural and commercial centers in West Africa.

·   The rise of commerce and the warmer temperatures between 800 and 1300 – The increase in commercial exchanges in the Indian Ocean, the Silk Roads and the Trans-Saharan Desert were all factors in the growth of commercial centers and urban economic activity. Warmer temperatures allowed for greater agricultural productivity, which increased population, which fueled urban growth.

·   Increased agricultural productivity and subsequent rising population and greater availability of labor also contributed to urban growth– Increased agricultural productivity by warmer climates and developments such as Champa rice and the horse collar helped increase populations, which puts strains on available agricultural land, which forces people to relocate into cities and increases the availability of labor and artisans.

While cities in general continued to play the roles they had played in the past as governmental, religious, and commercial centers, many older cities declined at the same time that numerous new cities emerged to take on these established roles. Rome in Western Europe experienced severe urban decline, while Constantinople experienced major urban growth and became the cultural and commercial center of Europe. Other Italian city-states, such as Venice, surpassed Rome in Mediterranean trade.  During the Song Dynasty, Southern China became the commercial and administrative capital of the Southern Song Dynasty. Timbuktu in West Africa emerged as a major trading and cultural center in West Africa.

III. Despite significant continuities in social structures and in methods of production, there were also some important changes in labor management and in the effect of religious conversion on gender relations and family life.

A.      As in the previous period, there were many forms of labor organization that began with settled agriculture continued in this period.

Required examples of forms of labor organization:

·   Free peasant agriculture – this is the traditional system of peasant agriculture. However, it can come in numerous varieties. Sometimes peasants may own small farms; sometimes they may rent small plots from nobility. Some may rent for years until they own it outright. Using the term “peasant” implies that it was non-coercive and that the peasants were free to move about in efforts to improve their circumstances. Many of these peasants would be subsistent farmers, completely self-sufficient. They may barter for some necessary supplies. Most of China was made up of free peasant agriculture.

·   Nomadic pastoralism – Nomadic Pastoralism is the middle ground between agricultural societies and hunting and gathering. Pastoralists were sheep, goat, cow, horse and/or pig herders and relied on the raising of these animals for everything and at times would trade the animal products for goods produced in agricultural villages. The Mongols and initially the Turks were some of the most important nomadic pastoralists in the late Post-Classical Period.

·   Craft production and guild organization – guild production came to dominate European craft productions.  Guilds were organizations of laborers that set standards for craft production, required specific techniques of production and set standards on quality as well as the price goods had to be sold. These guilds were organized by trade (blacksmith, masons, and other craftsmen) and provided a degree of social structure of urban societies. Guild techniques were often kept secret in order to prevent competition and helped to limit the number of new workers into the group.

·   Various forms of coerced and unfree labor – coerced labor continued to exist in various forms, many of which had started in the Classical period. Agricultural and domestic slave labor, corvée labor, the Incan mit’a system, and serfdom continued to be major forms of labor and production.

·   Government-imposed labor taxes –this is simply corvée labor. Governments and nobles would require labor from persons of lower social standings in order to work on the land of the nobility, on public works projects, or as military obligations. This was typical and people were subject to the authority of the government and labor taxes were a way for the government to raise revenue through free labor.

·   Military obligations – governments would also impose military obligations on subject people in order to provide for the common defense or imperial expansion. For example, China rarely had a standing professional army, and armies were recruited from among the lower classes.

B.      As in the previous period, social structures were shaped largely by class and caste hierarchies. Patriarchy persisted; however, in some areas, women exercised more power and influence, most notably among the Mongols and in West Africa, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Patriarchy continued to dominate social divisions in most agricultural societies. Class divisions provided structure and economic stability.

·   In some societies, such as the Mongol pastoralists, women were able to exercise greater levels of equality to men, holding political power at times. In West Africa, women had more opportunities than women in other lands. Some became prominent merchants, and others even rose to political power.

·   The arrival of Islam did not have the impact on women in West Africa as it did in other places. Most common/peasant women continued to socialize freely with other women, whereas Muslim women in the Middle East led more secluded lives.

·   In Japan, a few women were able to become military warriors and some were major literary figures, such as Lady Murasaki, who wrote The Tale of Genji, one of the first major Japanese works of literature that helped codify the Japanese vernacular (common) language.

C.      New forms of coerced labor appeared, including serfdom in Europe and Japan and the elaboration of the mit’a in the Inca Empire. Free peasants resisted attempts to raise dues and taxes by staging revolts. The demand for slaves for both military and domestic purposes increased, particularly in central Eurasia, parts of Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean.

·   European and Japanese serfdom appeared as part of the feudal structures in those areas. These serfs were tied to the land and were complete subjects of the land-holding elites. Labor and goods were extracted from the serfs and these serfs were not allowed to move freely, like peasants, among the land. When nobles were given land grants from kings or other nobles the serfs came with the land. Serfs were not possessions however, and could not be bought and sold.

·   Incan mit’a system – the mit’a system developed by the Incan Empire was a corvee labor system used to develop public works such as the intricate road and bridge network system in the Andes Mountains.

Examples of regions where free peasants revolted:

·   China – One major example when peasants rebelled in China was the An Lushan rebellion in the late Tang Dynasty (8^th century). With some reversal of fortunes, such as the failure at the Battle of Talas against the Abbasid Caliphate, a military leader, An Lushan led a major uprising of over 200,000 soldiers in rebellion. Additionally, in the 9^th century, Huang Chao led a major uprising of peasant and tenant farmers who could not protect themselves from local bosses and oppressive landlords or who did not know where to turn in the chaos. This is not unusual in Chinese history, as peasant rebellions are common and the causes are common: unequal land distribution, floods, famines, invasions and so on.

·   The Byzantine Empire – Initially the free peasantry of the Byzantine Empire was very productive and served as a tax based for the imperial government. As wealthy landlords sought to consolidate more land in the later centuries, the free peasantry lost available land and were forced into serfdom and sharecropping. This transition caused social and economic tensions between the peasantry and the upper classes and often resulted in rebellions and social upheaval.

D.      The diffusion of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Neoconfucianism often led to significant changes in gender relations and family structure.

·       Buddhism’s impact on gender relations and family structures were diverse throughout Southern, Central and Eastern Asia. Monastic life allowed for women and men to break from the traditional family structure. Buddhism provided for the equality of the soul and the equal opportunity at salvation. Monastic orders disrupted the traditional Chinese family structure and gave less emphasis on family life.

·       Christianity also provided for equal opportunity at salvation and the equality of the soul. Monastic orders (monasteries and nunneries) provided opportunities outside of the traditional family life. Roman Catholic Christianity was a very patriarchal structure that did not allow women priests, and emphasized the inequality of women in society.

·       Islam had some dramatic changes on the life of women and family. Islam provided for polygamy (multiple marriages) for men, but not women, and also continued the practice of veiling women (the hijab and the burqa) and Muslim women leading more secluded and private lives than men.

· Neoconfucianism (the synthesis of Buddhism and Confucianism) in China continued to emphasize familial relationships and filial piety. Family life remained extremely important and gender relationships were defined through the Confucian order. Men dominated public life.

Examples of changes in gender relations and family structure:

·       Divorce for both men and women in some Muslim states- While much of the Islamic impact on gender relations and women’s lives remains hotly debated, there were several specific improvements in women’s lives. Under Islam, men could have up to four wives if they could support and treat them equally and had more rights than women under divorce and inheritance rules. However, women enjoyed some legal protection, could own property and engage in business, and were considered partners before God alongside men. While divorce was theoretically easy for men, marriage contracts sometimes specified a large gift to a wife upon divorce. This, as with all large culture groups, varied greatly depending on local traditions and the varying roles of women.

·       The practice of foot binding in Song China – One source of suffering for women in Song China was foot binding among the elite and some common folk. Mothers tightly bound the feet of 5 or 6 year old daughters to prevent normal growth, crippling a girls feet and giving her a dainty walk that men viewed as erotic. Because they needed women’s labor for family survival, many peasants rejected the practice as physically debilitating. However, foot binding because widespread in later dynasties.