Mid+term+review+ANSWERS+2022

Chapter 1: Introduction to Physiology and Anatomy

  • Physiology: Investigates the processes or functions of living organisms.

  • Anatomy: Investigates the structure of the body.

Levels of Organization

  1. Atoms & Chemicals (Molecules):

    • Basic elements that form the building blocks of matter.

  2. Cells:

    • Basic unit of life in plants and animals.

  3. Tissues:

    • Groups of similar cells that perform a specific function.

  4. Organs:

    • Structures made of two or more tissues working together.

  5. Organ Systems:

    • Composed of multiple organs that function together for a common purpose.

  6. Organism:

    • A complete living entity made of several organ systems.

Homeostasis

  • Homeostasis: Existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body.

    • Example: Body temperature regulation through sweating as it rises.

Feedback Mechanisms

  1. Positive Feedback:

    • Enhances or increases the change or output.

    • Example: Blood clotting and childbirth (uterine muscle contractions).

  2. Negative Feedback:

    • Counteracts change to maintain homeostasis (opposite effects).

    • Example: Regulation of body temperature.

Anatomical Position

  • A standard position for anatomical references:

    • Person stands erect with face forward.

    • Hands hanging at sides with palms facing forward (anteriorly).

Major Organ Systems

  • Integumentary:

    • Skin; serves protective function.

  • Skeletal:

    • Provides support, movement, and produces blood cells.

  • Muscular:

    • Responsible for posture and movement.

  • Lymphatic:

    • Removes foreign substances from blood.

  • Digestive:

    • Absorbs nutrients (includes stomach and gallbladder).

  • Respiratory:

    • Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide (includes lungs).

  • Nervous:

    • Brain and spinal cord; control center of the body.

  • Urinary:

    • Kidneys; removes wastes from the body.

  • Endocrine:

    • Influences metabolism and growth through hormones.

  • Cardiovascular:

    • Heart; transports nutrients and waste.

  • Reproductive:

    • Sex organs; produce hormones that influence sexual functions.

Anatomical Terminology

  • Superior/Inferior: e.g., navel is inferior to the chin.

  • Cephalic/Caudal: e.g., chin is cephalic to the navel.

  • Dorsal/Ventral: e.g., spine is dorsal to the breastbone.

  • Proximal/Distal: e.g., shoulder is proximal to elbow.

  • Lateral/Medial: e.g., arms are lateral to the midline.

  • Superficial/Deep: e.g., lungs are deep to ribs.

Chapter 2: Histo-architecture of Tissues

  • Histology: Microscopic study of tissues.

    • Types of Tissues:

    1. Epithelial:

      • Covers outside and inside of the body, characterized by a basement membrane, classified by cell layers and shape.

    2. Connective:

      • Supports, transports, and stores. Consists of cells with a matrix; includes cartilage and fat.

    3. Muscle:

      • Types include:

        • Striated & voluntary (skeletal).

        • Smooth (involuntary - organs).

        • Cardiac (involuntary - heart).

    4. Nervous:

      • Composed of neurons; conducts electrical impulses.

Types of Connective Tissues

  • Types include:

    1. Hyaline:

      • Important for development; heals slowly due to few blood vessels.

    2. Fibrocartilage:

      • Found in vertebral discs.

    3. Elastic:

      • Found in ears and nose.

Other Components of Connective Tissues

  • Ligaments: Fibrous connective tissues attaching bone to bone, providing stability.

  • Tendons: Attaching muscle to bone, assisting in movement.

Chapter 5: Cancer Terminology

  • Cancer: Malignant, spreading tumors.

    • Benign Tumors: Non-cancerous, localized.

    • Malignant Tumors: Cancerous, inclined to spread.

    • Metastasis: Process by which cancer cells spread to distant sites.

    • Types of Skin Cancer:

      1. Basal cell carcinoma.

      2. Squamous cell carcinoma.

      3. Melanoma: Most dangerous type.

        • Asymmetry, Border irregularities, Color variation, Diameter increase, Evolution.

Chapter 6: Bone Structure and Function

  • Functions of Bone:

    1. Support

    2. Protection of organs

    3. Movement

    4. Storage of minerals

    5. Blood production.

  • Bone Cells:

    • Osteoblasts: Form bone.

    • Osteoclasts: Break down bone.

    • Osteocytes: Maintain bone health.

  • Bone Types: Woven (irregular) and Lamellar (organized).

  • Bone Marrow Types:

    1. Yellow marrow: Mostly fat.

    2. Red marrow: Site of blood cell formation.

Chapter 7: The Skeletal System

  • Axial Skeleton: Protects vital organs (e.g., skull, vertebral column).

  • Appendicular Skeleton: Includes weight-bearing bones (e.g., limbs, pelvic girdle).

  • Total Bones in Human Body: 206.

  • Sternum Parts: Manubrium, Body, Xiphoid process.

  • Spinal Curvatures: Lordosis (lumbar curve), Kyphosis (thoracic curve), Scoliosis (lateral curvature).

  • Unique Bones: Hyoid bone, serves as a point of attachment for the tongue and does not articulate with other bones.