Psychology of Learning and Conditioning

Definition of Learning

  • Learning is defined as a relative permanent change in behavior as a result of experience or practice. - Relative permanent means that when we learn, our brain undergoes physical changes to record what we've learned.

  • Maturation refers to physical changes in organisms, such as height or brain size.

Classical Conditioning

  • Classical Conditioning is a learning process that involves creating associations between a natural reflex and a neutral stimulus.- Pavlov's Experiment: Key elements demonstrated through Pavlov his classic experiment with dogs:

    • Based on a natural reflex.

    • An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) leads to an unconditioned response (UCR).

    • Stimulus Response: This forms the base of classical conditioning.

    • A Conditioned Stimulus (CS) starts as a neutral stimulus (initially does not cause any response).

    • When a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS), it forms a connection, leading the CS to evoke the UCR.

    • Experiment Details:

    • The dog is presented with meat powder (UCS), leading to salivation (UCR).

    • A metronome (CS) is started prior to the administration of powder. - For effective conditioning, the CS must precede the UCS closely in time (within 5 seconds).

      • The CS should be a distinctive stimulus, so it stands out.

Key Terms in Classical Conditioning

  • Stimulus: Any object, event, or experience that causes a response.

  • Response: The reaction of an organism.

  • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response from the conditioned stimulus.

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The original naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response.

  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic, unlearned response to the UCS.

  • Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not initially produce the desired response.

Acquisition

  • Acquisition refers to the process of learning where the neutral stimulus (now CS) becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Stimulus Generalization vs. Discrimination

  • Stimulus Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. the sound of a dentist drill might cause anxiety similar to the sound of a coffee grinder).

  • Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond with a condition response only to the conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli (e.g. not responding to the coffee grinder sound).

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

  • Extinction: Reduction of the conditioned response (CR) after repeated presentations of the CS without the UCS. - Example: Continuing to use the metronome (CS) without pairing it with food (UCS) eventually stops the dog from salivating.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of the CR after a rest period when the original CS is reintroduced (although typically weaker).

High-Order Conditioning and Cognitive View

  • High-Order Conditioning: Involves pairing a strong conditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus to elicit a response.

  • Cognitive View: Focuses on the mental processes of expecting an occurrence rather than just forming associations.

Classical Conditioning and Emotions

  • Conditioned Emotional Responses (CER): Emotional reactions such as fear can be conditioned (e.g.,
    Little Albert Experiment
    ).

  • Example: A white rat (Neutral Stimulus) is paired with a loud noise (UCS), leading to a learned fear (UCR).

  • Vicarious Conditioning: Learning through the observation of another person’s emotional response. - Advertisers utilize emotional stimuli, such as puppies or attractive individuals, to promote positive feelings towards their products.

Treatment of Disorders with Classical Conditioning

  • Principles used to create phobias can also be applied to treat anxiety and phobias through reconditioning emotional responses.

Taste Aversions

  • Garcia's Study: Demonstrated how a strong aversion can develop towards a food after a negative experience, like nausea.

  • Biological Preparedness: Some associations, like taste and illness, are more easily formed due to evolutionary survival mechanisms.- Example: Monkeys can easily develop fears of snakes, but not of flowers.

Drug Dependency

  • Environmental cues associated with drug use can act as conditioned stimuli, triggering cravings and leading to relapse.

Operant Conditioning

  • Definition of Operant Conditioning: How organisms learn voluntary responses, based on the consequences of their actions.

  • Key Contributions: - Edward Thorndike: Conducted the puzzle box experiment with cats.

    • Introduced the Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by pleasurable outcomes are more likely to be repeated; behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

    • B.F. Skinner: Expanded on Thorndike’s concepts:

    • Defined reinforcer as anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Types of Reinforcement

  • Primary Reinforcer: Directly fulfills a basic need (e.g., food).

  • Secondary Reinforcer: Gains reinforcing properties through association with a primary reinforcer (e.g. money).

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adds something positive to increase the probability of a prior behavior (e.g., giving food to make someone happy).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removes something negative to increase the probability of prior behavior (e.g., taking medicine to relieve sickness).

Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Continuous Reinforcement: Fast learning with quicker extinction; used to teach behaviors.

  • Partial Reinforcement: Rewards correct responses; leads to slower learning but greater resistance to extinction. - Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set period (e.g., weekly paycheck, increased behavior near end of interval).

    • Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals (e.g., pop quizzes, fishing).

    • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., punch cards at nail salons).

    • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a varying number of responses (e.g., slot machines, lottery).

Effects of Punishment on Behavior

  • Punishment: Decreases the probability of a behavior recurring but is typically temporary; may lead to negative consequences such as fear or lying.- Effective punishment should be immediate, consistent, and paired with reinforcement to teach desired behaviors.

  • Types of Punishment:- Punishment by Application (Positive Punishment): Presenting an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., scolding, spanking).

    • Punishment by Removal (Negative Punishment): Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., grounding, revoking privileges).

Concepts Related to Operant Conditioning

  • Discriminative Stimulus: A cue indicating which behavior leads to reinforcement (e.g., red light indicating to stop).

  • Extinction in Operant Conditioning: Occurs when reinforcement is removed, leading to a decrease in behavior (e.g., withdrawing candy to stop tantrums).

  • Generalization: Behavior learned in response to one stimulus may also apply to similar stimuli. - Example: A baby calling all males
    dada
    learns to discriminate and only use the term for his father.

  • Spontaneous Recovery: After extinction, previously reinforced behavior may reappear unexpectedly.

Behavioral Modification Techniques

  1. Shaping: Gradually reinforces successive approximations toward desired behavior.- Schedules of Reinforcement: Involves time and behaviors measured in intervals (Fixed or Variable).

  2. Chaining: Teaches a sequence of behaviors in a specific order.- Forward Chaining: Teaches steps from first to last.

    • Backward Chaining: Starts with the last step and trains backward.

  3. Biological Constraints: Genetic instincts can interfere with conditioning (termed Instinctive Drift).

  4. Behavior Modification: Utilizes operant and sometimes classical conditioning to change behaviors.- Token Economies: Using tokens as secondary reinforcers.

    • Time-out: A mild punishment by removal of attention.

    • Applied Behavior Analysis: Breaks skills into small, achievable steps and reinforces them, particularly for individuals with autism.

    • Biofeedback: Utilizes biological signals (e.g., heart rate) to encourage self-regulation.

    • Neurofeedback: Uses brain activity (EEG, fMRI) for improving focus or relaxation.

Latent Learning

  • Edward Tolman’s Maze Experiment: Demonstrated latent learning through three groups of rats:- Group 1: Received food reinforcement every time they completed the maze.

    • Group 2: Received no reinforcement until day 10, then got food.

    • Group 3: Never received reinforcement.

  • Findings: - Latent Learning: Occurs without reinforcement yet is revealed later once motivation is present.

    • Cognitive Map: A mental representation that becomes evident after food is introduced on day 10.

Insight Learning and Animals

  • Köhler’s Studies: Demonstrated that nonhuman animals can learn by insight, as shown in monkeys solving problems using tools. - Insight Learning: A sudden realization of how to solve a problem (e.g., combining sticks to retrieve a banana).

  • Comparison: Insight learning is different from trial-and-error learning, showcasing cognitive processes beyond mere trial-and-error.

Learned Helplessness

  • Seligman’s Studies: Addressed learned helplessness as a condition where repeated failures lead to a passive resignation (e.g. dogs in a conditioned setting not escaping shocks).- Learned helplessness: Explains certain forms of depression.

    • It is characterized not only by a passive attitude but also by a failure to activate control mechanisms.

Observational Learning

  • Definition: Learning new behavior by watching the actions of a model.

  • Bobo Doll Experiment: Conducted by Albert Bandura illustrates observational learning:1. Preschool children observe adults interact with toys. - Non-aggressive model ignored the doll.
    - Aggressive model hit and yelled at the Bobo doll.

    1. Outcomes:- Children exposed to the aggressive model imitated aggression with the doll after being left alone.

      • Demonstrates children can learn aggressive behaviors through observation without direct rewards or punishments.

    2. Social Media Influence: Similar patterns observed in real-world contexts, potentially leading to increased aggression, anxiety, and depression.

    3. Prosocial Media: Promotes helping behaviors, contrastingly reducing aggressive responses.

Elements of Observational Learning

  • AMID Mnemonic (Attention, Memory, Imitation, Desire): 1. Attention: Learner must focus on the model (influenced by model characteristics).

    1. Memory: Learner must retain what they have observed (e.g., cooking videos).

    2. Imitation: Learner must be capable of physically and cognitively reproducing the behavior.

    3. Desire (Motivation): Learner must have the motivation to perform a desired action. Motivation is enhanced if the model is successful.

Real-World Examples of Conditioning

  • The chime of an incoming message can act as a conditioned stimulus that produces a pleasurable response (e.g., excitement when receiving a notification).