Ancient India

Geographical Setting

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Figure 2.12. The map of the Indus civilization

The major geographical features of northern India are the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush Mountains. The Himalayas played a crucial role in shaping Indian civilization. Because of their great height and vast extent, the people of ancient India were able to develop a unique culture that was relatively unaffected by outside influences. The mountains served as a barrier against invasions and migrations from other groups, allowing Indian civilization to continue growing and developing.

The Himalayas are also the source of the three most important rivers that supported and enriched the early settlements that laid the foundation of Indian civilization: the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra Rivers. The Hindu Kush, on the other hand, served as a passageway through which various groups of people, travelers, and invaders entered India through mountain passes.

South of the Himalayas and Hindu Kush lies the northern plain. This region is fertile and prosperous because of the waters supplied by the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra Rivers. This area was known as Hindustan. To its west lies the Arabian Sea, to its east the Bay of Bengal, and to its south the Deccan Plateau.

The Deccan Plateau is extremely dry and less productive, resulting in a relatively low population density. In contrast, the coastal plains provided favorable conditions for communities that depended on fishing and trade for their livelihood. The Indian Ocean also served as an important route for commerce. Monsoon rains were essential in supplying sufficient water for agriculture. In fact, the coastal plains became a rich source of spices, which later attracted Western explorers to travel across the seas to India.

Indus Civilization (2500–1500 BCE)

In 1925, the remains of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were officially discovered. These cities revealed advanced urban planning, with streets intersecting at right angles. They also possessed drainage systems that carried water away from the city. Houses were large and often multi-story structures equipped with bathrooms and toilets that used indoor plumbing.

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Figure 2.13. The structural finds of the city of Mohenjo-Daro in southeastern Pakistan

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Figure 2.14. The “Great Granary” of Harappa

Large food storage facilities were also found, demonstrating the ability of the people to produce surplus food to support a large population. Scholars estimate that these cities flourished between 3000 and 2000 BCE.

According to D.D. Kosambi, a prominent Indian historian and mathematician, there appears to have been no earlier settlements preceding Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in the Indus region. They seemed to have emerged already well-organized and developed from the beginning. Another notable characteristic was the absence of public monuments. There were no inscriptions, obelisks, or statues. Kosambi also noted the relatively weak military equipment found in Mohenjo-Daro compared to its sophisticated urban infrastructure. Finally, he emphasized the “enduring changeless stability” of these cities during their existence.

The decline and eventual collapse of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa may have resulted from a series of natural disasters, particularly large-scale flooding caused by earthquakes and changes in the course of the Indus River. The latter was especially devastating to the people living along its banks. However, the arrival of the Aryans appears to have accelerated their downfall.

The Aryans (1500–500 BCE): Social Structure

The Aryans migrated to India from Persia. They spoke an Indo-European language and were pastoralists who continually searched for grasslands and water for their livestock. They brought with them their cattle, horse-drawn chariots, and their gods and goddesses.

Their language, Sanskrit, became the foundation of many modern Indian languages. They described themselves as “fair-skinned” and looked down upon the “dark-skinned” inhabitants of the region, whom they called Dravidians. As a result, it may be argued that the Aryans initiated racial discrimination in India, which later became institutionalized as the caste system. Non-Aryans became the Sudras and were assigned to the lowest social rank.

The Aryans’ belief in their superiority was reinforced by their conviction that they were favored by the gods. Assigning people to specific occupations and duties through the caste system became a means of social control.

Vedic Age (1500–1000 BCE)

The sacred Vedas are the oldest documents of India and the most important source of knowledge about the Aryans and the Vedic Age. The Vedas are collections of prayers, hymns, and ritual texts that were transmitted orally between 1500 and 1200 BCE before being written down around 1300 BCE.

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Figure 2.15. A manuscript page of Rigveda

The Aryans worshipped many gods and goddesses. Among them were Indra, the god of war and chief deity; Varuna, the god of the sky, order, and creation; and Agni, the god of fire.

The Rigveda is believed to have provided the basis for the caste system. Under this system, people in Vedic India were divided into four hierarchical social classes called varnas:

Brahmins – the priestly class

Kshatriyas – the nobility and warrior class

Vaishyas – common people, merchants, and farmers

Sudras – non-Aryans and laborers

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Figure 2.16. The caste system of India

Ritual or ceremonial purity was central to the caste tradition, and interaction between castes was strictly regulated. In fact, thousands of castes developed in India, representing various professions and social groups.

Because movement between castes was generally prohibited, Indian society can be considered a closed society. On one hand, this system helped preserve the identities of different groups while integrating them into society. On the other hand, the doctrine of reincarnation offered an explanation for social inequality. People were encouraged to follow their Dharma, or duty, in the hope of attaining a better life in their next existence.

Toward the end of the Vedic Age, the Aryans began conquering the Indo-Gangetic region. They established oligarchic republics and kingdoms ruled by rajahs. During this period, they became skilled in iron metallurgy.

More importantly, a shared culture emerged among the inhabitants of the region, rooted in both Aryan and Dravidian traditions. The dominant civilization that developed reflected the influence of the conquering peoples. According to Panikkar, “the clearest evidence of this fact is the gradual disappearance of the Aryan gods in the post-Vedic civilization.” Varuna eventually disappeared from the list of major deities, while Indra was reduced to the status of a super-king in the lower heavens.

Geography is the study of the Earth's surface and the processes that have shaped it. The term comes from the Greek words geo, meaning "earth" or "world," and graphein, meaning "to write." Thus, the term geographia literally means "to write about the earth or the world." In a practical sense, geography is the study of the environment, people, and the resources they use. As a discipline, geography examines the physical environment of human beings and how it has influenced their social and cultural development. Geography connects the physical sciences, such as geology, physics, chemistry, biology, and botany, with the social sciences, including anthropology, sociology, history, economics, and political science. Specialists who study geography are called geographers.

QUICK CHECK-IN

Reflection:

What are the proofs of the high level of development reached by Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro?

Why was India then considered a closed society?

Ancient China

Geographical Setting

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Figure 2.18. The map of the Chinese civilization

China is the largest country in East Asia. In ancient times, its boundaries were defined largely by natural features. To the north lay the Gobi Desert; to the east, the Pacific Ocean; to the west and southwest, the Himalayas and Tien Shan Mountains; and to the southeast, dense forests that separated China from Southeast Asia.

For a long time, the Chinese viewed their land as the “Middle Kingdom” (Chung-kuo), believing it to be the center of civilization. China established early contacts with neighboring kingdoms through trade.

The earliest Neolithic culture in China emerged along the banks of the Huang He (Yellow River), often called “China’s Sorrow” because of the destructive floods it frequently caused. Rather than discouraging settlement, however, these challenges inspired creative solutions.

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Figure 2.19. The Huang He River or Yellow River

To avoid flooding, people cultivated crops on higher ground near the river. This allowed them to benefit from the fertile soil while remaining relatively safe from floods. The resulting agricultural productivity supported population growth. The Chinese also undertook large-scale projects such as dams and irrigation canals to control the river’s waters.

The northern regions of China were inhabited by nomads and subsistence farmers. The rugged terrain and deserts produced resilient and hardy people who played an important role in shaping Chinese history. These groups repeatedly launched raids against Chinese settlements, forcing the Chinese to develop strategies for defense. At times, some of these groups even gained control over Chinese territories.

Social Structure

The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty in China supported by historical records. Ancestor worship played a significant role during this period. The Shang believed that performing rituals and honoring their ancestors helped ensure abundant harvests and the well-being of the people.

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Figure 2.20. An oracle bone script

One of the Shang Dynasty’s most important contributions to Chinese civilization was its writing system. The earliest evidence of this writing was found inscribed on oracle bones.

The Zhou Dynasty is regarded as the Classical Age of Chinese civilization. During this period, the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven (Tian Ming) was developed. According to this belief, rulers were chosen by a divine power and therefore governed by divine right. When a ruler lost power, it was seen as Heaven withdrawing its mandate.

The rise and fall of dynasties, known as the dynastic cycle, was rooted in this doctrine.

During the Zhou period:

Iron metallurgy developed.

Copper coins began to be used.

Silk became China’s most important export.

The Silk Road was established, linking China with the Middle East.

Some of China’s earliest books were produced.

One of the most famous of these works was the I Ching, also known as The Book of Changes.

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Figure 2.21. The Dynastic Cycle of the ancient Chinese civilization

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Figure 2.22. The map of the Silk Road from China to Europe

QUICK CHECK-IN

Reflection:

How can the rise and fall of dynasties in China during the Zhou period be explained?