Notes(Stuff I wrote From Heimler Vids)
UNIT 7
7.1 Notes Heimler
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
Many of their maritime and land-based empires would fall apart and give rise to new states
¨Sick Man Of Europe¨ to ¨Dead Man of Europe¨
Tanzimat Reform→ Attempting defensive industrialization program
Young Ottomans→ A group of youthful Ottomans that had been educated in Western ideas and called for liberal political reforms
The sultan agreed to some of the demands and created a parliament and a constitution
After Russia threatened them with war, the sultan went back to being a dictator
Nationalism led them to envision the Ottomans as Turkic with the exclusion of the rest of the minor ethnic groups within the empire
Ended up getting rid of the sultan later on
Ottoman Reforms
Secularization of schools and law codes
Establishment of political elections
Imposition of Turkic language
The implementation of these nationalistic policies alienated other minorities which resulted in those groups experiencing waves of nationalism which further fractured the empire
The collapse of the Russian Empire
The Russian Revolution
Made some efforts toward industrialization under the heavy hand of the Zar Alexander the Second
Middle Class→Created by industrialization began to resent the authoritarian policies and demanded representation within the government decisions
Later on, suffered from state-sponsored industrialization which led to the Russian Revolution
Nicholas provided demands such as a constitution, labor unions, and labor parties but he would later on ignore those reforms and continue his dictatorship
This caused tensions to rise once again and WW I made it even worse
WW I continued the difficulties of industrialization then led to the Russian Revolution of 1917 which was led by Marxist visionary Vladimir Lenin who was the leader of a political party known as the Bolsheviks
The revolution was successful = the Bolsheviks seized power and established a communist state and the Soviet Union
Collapse of Qing China
Qing Problems
Taiping Rebellion
Put down by Qing Authorities
Cost millions of lives and money
Loss of Opium Wars
Loss of Sino-Japanese War
China was no match for industrialized Japan
Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists
Boxer Rebellion→ Against Ching authorities whom they viewed as foreigners
Had to rely on Western Powers for financial support
Later on, they imposed demands on a weakened China for their benefits
Sun Yat Sin→ A Western educator who resulted in the abdication of the Ching emperor
China emerges as a communist state under the leadership of Mao Zedong
The Mexican Revolution
Porfirio Diaz→ angered every social class in Mexico with his policies and banded together to get rid of him
A decade of civil war ensured peasant armies led by Poncho Villa and Emiliano Zapata but both unsuccessful
Mexico emerged as a republic with a constitution that had reforms that prevented the acts that led to the Revolution to begin with.
7.2 Notes Heimler
Causes of WWI
Militarism→ The belief that states out to build up strong militaries and employ them aggressively to protect their interests
Due to productivity in industrial manufacturing, states were able to produce military weapons in greater quantities and faster
Germany→ possesses the most powerful military force in Europe due to rapid industrialization and massive build-up of military
France→ experienced several internal problems at the time and its military was not as strong therefore became fearful of Germany’s rapid growth in power
Great Britain→ Had a very powerful military, but its strong sense of militarism drained its national resources faster than Germany
Alliances→Balance of power within the European continent was expressed through two major alliances
Triple Alliance→ Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungarian empire
Triple Entente→ Britain, France, and Russia
Alliances created in the interest of National Security on both sides or to isolate rival states
Mobilization Timetables for railroads were created in case a war broke out, Once it has begun it will be difficult to stop
Railroads will be the main vehicle to mobilize troops in war
Imperialism→caused by the desire to project power on the world stage
Germany→ under the influence of National unity and military sought to enlarge its empire at the expense of other European powers
Imperial holdings secure + no territory to conquer = Europeans experience conflict over existing colonial holdings
Nationalism→the glorification of one state and defining the other states as enemy
Nationalistic messages are embraced through schools, leading to convincing the population that others are bad and they need to be loyal to their state
Concing the youth that their national identities were under threat from rival states
Conflict needs to be dealt with using force and not compromise
Assassination
Gavrilo Princip → Serbian nationalist shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austria-Hungarian empire over regional dispute
Causing an international war over something little
The assassination was caused by nationalism
Timeline
Assassination occurs due to nationalism
Alliances were forced to join the fight
Firing the process of mobilization
WWI begins
7.3 Heimler notes
How the war was fought
World War I was the first Total War
Total War→ A war that requires the mobilization of a country's entire population, both military and civilian, to fight
Everyone including civilians and soldiers was required to contribute to the war efforts
Civilians considered viable targets for military efforts
Propaganda→ a motivation for everyone to make sacrifices and join war efforts, overall used to boost morale and nationalism
Propaganda campaigns demonized enemies and exaggerated atrocities enemies committed
Produced in forms of Art and various media including newspapers, posters, and pamphlets
Utilized intensive nationalism which was one of the causes of WWI
People began to view the world as a collection of enemy rivals, and their national identities were most important to them
Total War Strategies
Schlieffen plan (Germany)
New military technologies made WWI the deadliest war in human history
Machine guns, chemical gas, and tanks
Trench Warfare→each side digs miles of trenches on opposite sides and hunkered down for protection
not a new strategy but done in an excessive amount
led to years of stalemates where casualties mounted but neither side made progress
Indian Infantry→ Using colonial troops to fight your war
Porters in war whose job was to carry military equipment to various locations
Colonies fought in hopes of gaining independence which did not occur
End of War
Lasted for four years and caused many casualties and destruction
The turning point was the US joining the fight with Britain and France
The US originally wanted to remain neutral but Germany sank their ships and tried to incite Mexico to start a war with US dragging them into WWI
Central powers lose and Allied powers win
Paris Peace Conference of 1915 occurs
Treaty of Versailles→ Marked peace and end of war + punished Germany which caused WWII
7.4 Heimler notes
The economic crisis
German Hyperinflation
The Treaty of Versailles required them to pay other European powers to make up for all the money lost during the war which they could not afford
Germany is now in debt leading to the printing of more money
Germany can pay off debt to Britain and France, then they can pay their debt to the USA
Soviets weren´t paying back their war debts + had a communist revolution which decided that old debt didn't belong to the new Bolshevik government
Colonial Governments suffered because they had come to depend on the economies of their parent countries
Germany borrows money from the US leading to rapid economic recovery
Soviet Union
Russian Revolution of 1917 allowed Russia to exit WWI
Vladimir Lenin→ got the communist government involved and instituted the New economic policy
introduced some limited free market principles
biggest institutions remained under state control
economic policies died with him
Joseph Stalin→ wanted the Soviet Union to industrialize quickly
Five Year Plan→ aimed to multiply Soviet industrial capacity by five years
Accomplished through a strong-armed state bent on brutality
Collectivization of Agriculture→ merging small privately owned farms into large, sprawling collective farms owned by the state
used to supply the rapidly growing industrial centers
Kulaks resisted collectivization leading to the arrest of 8 million executed or sent to hard labor camps
Peasant farmers were left who were not as skilled and did not match production quotas
Famine areas→harvest were half of what they had been before
Ukraine productions were all exported to feed workers and not other civilians
Millions starved to death as a result
Holodomor→ death by hunger
The Great Depression
Took place within the US after the stock market had crashed
The US's inability to continue funding European powers led to the Great Depression becoming a Global Crisis
Franklin D. Roosevelt
New Deal
The government put people to work on infrastructure projects
Introduced a government-sponsored retirement program
Created government medical insurance for the elderly and children
WWII eventually solved all of the US´s economic issues
7.5 Heimler Notes
Colonies
European powers and Japanese maintained their colonial holdings in the interwar period, and in some cases, states gained colonial territory as a result of the war
New states emerged after the war
The Republic of Turkey→ Leader is Ataturk
In many places colonial territory was tossed from one imperial power to another
The Mandate System in the Middle East
Paris Peace Conference that ended WWI aimed to dismantle the Ottoman and German empires and divided the colonial powers among themselves
Woodrow Wilson→commited the ultimate colonial imperial foul
US president who kept insisting during peace negotiations that self-determination ought to be the guiding principle of a post-war
States should have the right to govern themselves
Mandate system→Middle Eastern territories would become mandates administrated by the League of Nations
Three-tiered structure to classify these territorial holdings
Class C Mandates
Smallest population and least developed
Treated as colonies
Several islands in the Pacific
Class B Mandates
Larger populations but still underdeveloped
Most of Germany´s colonies in Africa
Class A Mandates
Large populations and sufficiently developed
Suitable for independence and self-rule
Britain occupies Iraq and Palestine
France occupies Syria and Lebanon
This enraged the colonies and led to anti-colonial resistance
Japan´s Expansion
Only non western state make themselves equal to Western power
Invaded Manchuria to expand its Empire and gain access to resources
Violation of rules established by the League of Nations
League could not enforce its rules and Japan quit it to continue their quest
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity sphere
Anti-Imperial resistance
Colonial Resistance
Indian National Congress
Formed before the war in the 19th century
formally petitioning the British government for greater degrees of self-rule in India
British domination continued even after the many Indians fought for Britain during WWI
Mohandas Ghandhi→ lead Indians in peaceful protest
African National Congress
Founded in South Africa by Western-educated lawyers and journalists
Dedicated to obtaining equal rights for colonial subjects in South Africa
Pan- Africanism→ aimed for the equality and unity of all black people across the world
7.6 Heimler notes
Causes of WWII
- WWI Grievances
Italy
Bitter because they did not receive promised land grants in Austria and the Ottoman Empire
Before the war broke out Italy was allied with Germany but when the allied powers promised land grants, Itlay broke the alliance with Germany + fought against them
Italy was not as helpful as they thought and so they took away the land grants they previously promised
Mussolini becomes enraged
Germany
Required to pay reparation payments ruined their economy
Forced demilitarization, making them vulnerable
War guilt clause→ Blamed Germany alone for the entire war
Engineered by Britain and France to humiliate Germany on the World stage
Enraging Hitler
-Continued Imperialism
Japan
Expanded into China and Pacific which upset the League of Nations
Italy
expanded on its own due to unfulfilled promises, invading Ethiopia and consolidating all its colonial holdings in the African continent
Germany
expanded under Hitler by reclaiming former land that was taken from them because of the Treaty of Versailles
First expanding into the Rhineland which was a buffer zone between them and France + Czechoslovakia and Austria in the name of living space
Britain and France fail to stop Germany from expansion due to the fear of beginning another WW
The policy of Appeasement→Hitler can expand with no consequences
-Economic Crisis
-Fascism/Totalitarianism
Soviet Union→ Russia is transformed into a communist state
Stalin worried the other Western powers because his actions proclaimed that he wasn´t satisfied for communism to remain Soviet reality but instead wanted the rest of the world to be communism
Fascism→A political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarian leadership, and materialistic means to achieve its goals
Benito Mussolini rose to power and established a fascist state in Italy
Organized all of Italy to serve his vision
Lowered standards of living
Social Security and public services were state-funded
Delivered nationalistic speeches, glorifying Italians, and their cultures
Organized parades, used mass communication technologies to obtain public support and make Italy great on the World stage
Adolf Hitler
The most fascist was Germany
He took hold of the Nazi party
Used mass communication technology to spread his nationalistic messages about Germany
Claimed that the enemy of all Germans were socialists, communists, and Jews
Nazi party policies improved standards of living for many Germans
It was precisely Hitlerś ability to put language to Germany´s humiliation and suffering that made his cure so compelling
Hitler´s Policies
Cancel reparation payments
Remilitirize Germany
Territorial Expansion (Lebensraum)
Eliminate ¨ïmpure¨ races
Mainly Jews
7.7 Heimler Notes
Another Total War
WWII was the second Total War and had a more devastating impact
The most immediate cause of the war was Hitler´s invasion of Poland
Like WWI alliance formed on two sides
Axis powers → included Germany, Italy, and Japan who were Fascist
Allied Powers→ Britain, France, Soviet Union, and US
Soviet Union and US joined later on
Soviet Union breaks former alliance with Germany due to their invasion attempt
Pearl Harbor bombing leads to the US joining the fight for the opposite side
Mobilization
WWII Propaganda
Used to provoke nationalism in its people
used to demonize their enemies
Used to Sow Fear
Assemble massive armies
Keen civilians sacrificed on the home front
Ideologies of WWII
Fascism
Glorification of the state
Use of Militaristic means
Organized politically and economically
Serves the interest of the state and not the people
Hitler made use of all the people he conquered to serve the war effort and established labor camps for Jews and slavs
Communism
Soviet Economy
Rapid Industrialization through Five Year Plans
Brutal and unflinching demands
Democracy
Winston Churchill→ Britain's new prime minister
Did not put up with Hitler’s expansion efforts
Relied on the persuasion of his people
Propaganda dubbed it a ¨people´s war¨
The government promised the expansion of welfare
US
After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the US forced Japanese--Americans into internment camps because the government feared that they were operatives of the enemy
Germany
Jews and other undesirables were forced into ghettos as a result of the Nur Burgh laws
Later moved to concentration camps and were forced into hard labor or killed
Strategies and Technologies
Blitzkrig→ A shock and awe strategy that aimed to eliminate the enemy with incredible speed which was used by Germany
Combined Air Assault from planes and quick infantry movements from tanks
Firebombing→small clusters of explosive devices that were meant to fall in urban areas and did damage by starting fires
Atomic Bomb→ Destabilizing particles on the atomic level + could destroy an entire city
Developed by the US
Dropped on Japan resulting in their surrender and the end of the war in the Pacific
In the end, the Allied powers prevailed both in Europe and the Pacific
7.8 Heimler Notes
Causes of Mass Atrocities
Two World Wars
About 120 million deaths
50% being civilians
New Technologies
Aerial Warfare→ Firbombing + Atomic Bomb
The rise of extremist political Ideologies aiming to destroy entire populations on account of race or ethnicity
Major Atrocities
Armenian Genocide→Ottoman Empire began a program revisioning their state as primarily Turkic under the influence of the Young Turks which cast their suspicion upon Christian Armenians
Mass extermination and slaughter
Relocation of Armenians
The Holocaust→The desire to create a pure race and therefore exterminate those who tarnished that purity
Including ROMA, Homosexuals, the disabled, political enemies, many others
The Jewish population has the worst
Nuremberg law→Stripped the rights of Jews and forced them into ghettos + concentration camps
Auschwitz was the name of the camps they were placed into
Killed through gas chambers
The Cambodian Genocide→Kmehr Rouge takes control of Cambodia under the leadership of Pol Pot
Began to change Cambodia into an Agrarian state and completely erase all Western influence
Emptied cities forced people to work in labor camps and targeted the education population who were influenced by Westernized ideals
Was not as racially motivated but caused the death of a quarter of Cambodia´s population
UNIT 8
8.1 Heimler Notes
Two Superpowers arise
Cold War→ A state of hostility that exists between two states characterized by an ideological struggle rather than open warfare
Between the Soviet Union and the US
Allied powers were affected economically due to the WWII
Two Global Powers emerged as a result→ The United states and the Soviet Union
Economic and technological advantages
The reason why US and USSR emerged as global powers
Economic advantages
United States
WWII affected the economy as more women were involved in the work force
The US avoids geographical and economic damage outside of Pearl Harbor due to its distant geographical location
Marshall Plan→sent money in aid for economic recovery in war-torn nations which lead to those nations experiencing a revival
Balance of power shifts to the USA
Soviet Union
Economy was heavily directed by the state
Command economy draws skepticism from free market minded folks+ in years leading up to WWII, the soviet economy grew rapidly, growth led to suffering and death of Soviet citizens
Soviet Economy
Natural Resources
Enormous territory
Large population
Investment before WWII
infrastructure was already in place
Technological Advances
US develops most advanced + devastating weapon→ Atomic Bomb
Deployed two on Japan ending war in the Pacific Theatre
The US was high on the scale of most advanced military tech
The Soviet Union refuses to be intimidated and begins to advance their own weapon art and tech
Arms Race→ A lot of money was invested into developing bombs
Nuclear and Hydrogen bombs
Decolonization
WWs create the stage for this
Colonies had to fight for the imperial parents against their will in hopes that their sacrifice would be honored with indépendance
Woodrow Wilson→ Insisted on self-determination for all nations
vetoed and Mandate system was enacted instead
Mandate system→ Divided the colonies of world into a hierarchical system with varying degrees of self-rule based upon their ability to sustain themselves
Did not follow through leading to the Colonies becoming infuriated
WWII
Massive anti-imperial movements broke out due to no effort being made toward indépendance after fighting for others outside the colony
Due to the WWs draining European powers from resources and military, the rebellions were more successful
UNIT 8.2
The Cold War
The United Nations
Allies wanted to create a new organization to maintain peace.
The League of Nations failed because it lacked support from power nations like the U.S. and was unable to act quickly on emerging conflicts.
United Nations: International organization established in 1945, promoting world peace and cooperation.
Economic and Political Rivalry
Iron Curtain: Metaphor describing political split between Eastern and Western Europe, used by Winston Churchill in 1946.
In Capitalist Countries, economic assets are owned privately and people have the right to act in their own interest.
In Communist Countries, economic assets are owned by the government, with equality and fairness being emphasized.
The United States elected leaders through free voting, with political parties competing and independent press providing information.
The Soviet Union’s elections were not important as a single party dominated politics, with the press being operated by the government.
The Soviets were criticized for the lack of human rights and freedoms given to civilians.
The U.S. was criticized for wealth gaps and discrimination of minorities and women.
International Affairs
Eastern European countries under the influence of the Soviet Union were forced to develop 5 year economic plans focusing on industry and collective agriculture, rather than consumer products. Non-communist political parties were outlawed to enforce this.
Satellite Countries: small states dependent on stronger states economically or politically.
These countries were forced to import only Soviet goods and export only to them
World Revolution: belief that organized workers would overthrow capitalist governments.
As the Soviets viewed capitalism as a threat to their power, they supported uprisings prior to World War II.
Containment Policy: U.S. diplomat George Keenan advocated for limited the spread of communism.
Other politicians argued they should overthrow new communist governments.
Truman Doctrine: Statement from U.S. President Harry Truman that they would go to extreme measures to stop the spread of communism, especially in Greece and Turkey.
Soviet Union attempted to put military bases in Turkey to control.
In Greece, communist parties were close to gaining control of the government.
Marshall Plan: U.S. 12 billion dollar aid to all of Europe, designed to prevent communist revolutions from occurring in the economically unstable continent.
The plan worked as it majorly boosted European economies.
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance: As the Soviets and their sattelite countries declined U.S. aid, they made an organization to develop trade and credit agreements within the region.
Space and Arms Race
Space Race: Started by the Soviet’s satellite in 1957, them and the U.S. competed with aerospace developments and the mission to land first human on the moon.
Mutual Assured Destruction: The U.S. and Soviet Union developed such powerful nuclear weapons at similar pace that both knew a war would cause total destruction.
Non-Aligned Movement
Bandung Conference: New African and Asian countries met in 1955, where they passed resolutions to condemn communism and to stay independent from the two superpowers.
Non-Aligned Movement: Third world countries attempt to stay apart from Cold War rivalry.
Member states became closely allied with either the U.S. or the Soviet Union.
War broke out between Ethiopia (supported by the Soviets) and Somalia (supported by the U.S.)
8.3 NOTES
Effects of the Cold War
German Separation
Allies divided Berlin into 4 zones (for each Allied Country), with Britain, France, and the U.S. combining their zones into one free democratic city.
Berlin Blockade: June 1948 - May 1959, The Soviets set up a blockade in the Western Allied Berlin zones, to prevent supplies from moving into them.
Berlin Airlift: Allies flew supplies into their Berlin zones until the Soviets lifted the blockade.
After the blockade, Germany split into the Federal Republic of Germany (Western) and the German Democratic Republic (Eastern).
East Germans fled to Western Germany for the democratic lifestyle, which hurt the communist economy and reputation.
Berlin Wall: Wall made by the German Democratic republic to prevent it's population from escaping from 1961-1989.
New Alliances
Soviet Union was backed up to the newly communist governments of Eastern Europe.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization: In April 1949, Western nations signed a treaty pledging mutual support and cooperation against conflicts and wars.
Warsaw Pact: Alliance formed by the communist bloc, combining their armed forces and led by Moscow, Soviet Union capital.
Yugoslavia never joined and Albania left in 1968.
Other Organizations formed to stop spread of communism in other regions.
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization: Formed by Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States to stop spread of communism in Southeast Asia
Central Treaty Organization: Anti-Soviet treaty organization formed by Iran, Great Britain, Iraq, Pakistan, and Turkey to stop spread of Communism in the middle east.
Proxy Wars
Wars during the cold war were called proxy wars as the armies of smaller countries were stand-ins (proxies) for the U.S.S.R. and the U.S, yet still resulted in millions of deaths.
After WWII, the Allies split the Korean Peninsula into North (Soviet occupied) and South (U.S. occupied)
The Korean War begun when North Korea attempted to invade South Korea and reunite the region under a communist government.
The UN voted to defend South Korea with the U.S. providing most troops.
The Soviet Union sent money and weapons to North Korea.
As the UN forced toward’s North Korea’s border with China, China sent troops to fight against them as they feared the United States would invade them.
The war ended in a stalemate with about 4 million deaths and Korea still divided.
Vietnam War: Communist North Vietnam launched an invasion on South Vietnam.
As the war went on, the U.S. increased millitary support in South Vietnam as they feared a communist takeover in Vietnam would cause the rest of the region would become communist too (Domino Theory).
In March 1973, U.S. took all troops out of Vietnam, and 2 years later North Vietnam won.
Communist revolutionaries took over Cuba in 1959 and soon set up a government and economy similar to the Soviet Union.
The U.S. blocked off all economic and diplomatic ties with Cuba as the country was forming an Alliance with the U.S.S.R.
Bay of Pigs: John F. Kennedy aided Cuban exile’s invasion which was a total failure and solidified a Cuban-Soviet alliance.
Cuban Missile Crisis: Series of tensions threatening nuclear war as the U.S. placed nukes in Turkey while the Soviets placed tired to place some in Cuba but were stopped. Eventually they both withdrew theirs.
Hot Line (Cold War): direct telegraph link between the U.S. and Soviet leaders offices to avoid sudden crisis.
Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975, but the borders set by Portugal concealed rival ethnic groups into one country. Each group fought for power and control of the diamond mines.
U.S.S.R. and Cuba supported the Mbundu tribe
United States supported the Bankongo tribe
South Africa supported the Ovimbundu tribe
Ended with a cease-fire in 2002
Contra War: Period of violence in Nicaragua between the Sandinista (socialists) and the Contra (conservative and U.S. supported).
Anti-Nuclear Weaponry
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Signed by the U.S. and Soviet Union, along with over 100 other states, to put an end to nuke testing (except underground) due to environmental dangers.
Nuclear Proliferation Treaty: Called on nuclear power nations to prevent spread of the technology to non-nuclear countries.
Japanese Anti-Nuclear Movement: Japanese petitioned to ending U.S. nuclear missile testing in the pacific.
8.4 Unit Notes
Spread of Communism after 1900
Land Reform: redistribution or change of laws/regulations surrounding land
Communism in China
In 1927 Chinese nationalists and communists were fighting over control of the country, but the two agreed to both fight Japan when they invaded China.
Once WWII was over, the Chinese Civil War continued with the communists gaining popular support as they implemented nationalist policies like land reforms, hospital and educational improvement, and stronger justice system.
Peasants saw the communists as more nationalist and less corrupt.
Mao Zedong: Leader of the Chinese Communists and founded the People’s Republic of China.
China started to reform the economy into a industry heavy one like the Soviets.
Great Leap Forward: Policy promoting many land reforms in China.
Communes: large agricultural communities owned by the state, where peasants were moved into. Protesters were killed or sent to reeducation camps.
Reeducation: Places of brainwashing, torture, hard labor, and punishment for those not loyal to the Chinese Communist Party.
Mao continued to export grain to Africa and Cuba to create strong economic image, while about 20 million Chinese died from starvation.
Cultural Revolution: Mao Zedong’s effort to strengthen China’s commitment to communism and solidify his power.
Red Guards: Chinese revolutionary students, sent by Mao to bring people to reeducation camps.
Although both communist, China and the Soviet Union competed for influence around the world like in Albania, and the two had border disputes.
Turmoil in Iran
Britain and Russia fought for control over Iran and competition grew when oil was discovered early 20th century.
During WWII Russia and Britain invaded Iran to prevent them from helping the Nazis.
Muhammad Reza Pahlavi was put in power by the Allies, and in 1951 Iranian nationalists kicked him out the country as they saw him as a western puppet.
Iran put in Mohammad Mosaddegh, vowing to nationalize oil production.
U.S. and Great Britain took back control and the shah ran a ruthless authoritarian regime.
White Revolution: Period Iranian progressive reforms.
Government bought land from landlords and resold to peasants at a cheaper price.
Peasants who were not helped and landlords forced to sell opposed the land reforms.
In 1979, The Iranian Revolution overthrew the shah and emerged was a new government that complied with the Islamic law (shariah).
Theocracy: a form of government where religion is supreme authority.
Latin America Land Reforms
In Venezuela, the government redistributed large land-owner’s land in addition to some state-owned land, in total ~5 million acres.
Citizen support was split as those who benefited were happy, but landowners were not.
In Guatemala, Jacob Arbenz attempted land reforms. The US Fruit Company was threatened and forced the US government to overthrow Arbenz.
Asian and African Land Reforms
Independent and Communist Vietnam redistributed land to peasants, making them supportive, yet with violent strategies.
In South Vietnam, the government was slow on land reform, making them unpopular with the people.
Haile Selassie aligned Ethipoia with western powers, and prospered from coffee trade.
As he was unable to redistribute land, citizens saw him as pawn of U.S. imperialism.
A new socialist government took control of Ethiopia led by Mengitsu Haile Mariam, and received help from the Soviet Union, but he was very unsuccessful and failed by 1991.
After WWII, India became independent and partitioned into Pakistan (Muslim) and India (Hindu) in 1947.
In Kerala, progressive land reforms and wage fixes went through, but were undone by the Indian Central Government, despite being popular.
8.5 NOTES
Decolonization after 1900
Autonomy movements of India and Pakistan
Hindu and Muslims groups united their desire for independence from Britain and were successful, led by Gandhi.
Muslim League: Supporters for a separate nation for the Muslims of India (Pakistan).
Protesters of Gandhi’s approach for unity put differences aside during WWII, but continued after.
Britain was ready to negotiate South Asian independence after being weakened from WWII, economic pressures, and the Royal Indian Navy Revolt of 1946.
India and Pakistan both claimed independence in 1947.
Ghana and Algeria
With the aid of the United Nations, the independent Gold Cost combined with the former British Togoland to form the first Sub-Saharan independent country, Ghana (1957).
Pan-Africanism: idea that Africans have common interests and should be unified.
Kwame Nkrumah: First President of Ghana.
Nkrumah constructed national narratives about glory for Ghana, to increase Ghanaian nationalism.
When voters agree to a One Party State due to economic problems, Nkrumah claimed dictatorial powers.
Organization of African Unity: Founded by Nkrumah, alliance of independent African nations with the goal of cooperation between new African governments.
In 1966 Ghana was overthrown by a military coup and a President did not return till 2000.
Prior to independence for Algeria, they faced violance rising from economic, political, and social crisis protests and the French government’s enforced response.
The Algerian War for Independence was fought between Algerians who wanted independence and French settlers who believed the colony was part of France at that point.
National Liberation Front (FLN): Radical nationalist movement in Algeria.
French Communist Party sided with Algeria, causing violence in the streets of France.
FLN maintained a socialist authoritarian rule that didn’t tolerate dissent (one party rule).
Algerian Civil War: Starting in 1991, violent conflict begun with Islamic rebel groups against the Algerian FLN government.
Ghana promoted elected governments while Algeria consisted of authoritarian power and banning elections, which brought harsh fighting.
French West Africa Independence
During the indirect rule, France invested infrastructure and agriculture into West Africa, returning trade revenue.
By 1959, many West African French colonies negotiated independence.
Vietnam Division
After and before WWII, France occupied Southern Vietnam.
Ho Chi Minh: communist leader of North Vietnam.
Vietnamese War of Independence: Northern Vietnam forces and France fought over control of South Vietnam, ending with a peace treaty splitting North and South Vietnam as independent countries.
Fearing a communist take over of the Vietnams, the US and South Vietnamese governments fought the Northern Vietnamese and the Viet Cong.
North Vietnam took over after 1975, and spread some communist rule to Laos and Cambodia.
Made economic reforms.
Egypt
Egypt became a nominally independent kingdom in 1922 with some British authority until the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty gave Egypt more power.
In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew the Egyptian King and established the Republic of Egypt.
Nasser supported Pan-Arabism, and his policies combined Islam and socialism.
Begun to nationalize businesses, including an attempt on the Suez Canal.
Suez Crisis: When Nasser of Egypt tried to nationalize the Suez Canal, owned by Britain and France, leading to Israel invading Egypt on behalf of Britain and France.
The U.S. and Soviet Union opposed the action and interfered, leading to peaceful compromise.
Nigeria´s Independence and Civil War
Biafran Civil War: After Nigeria gained independence from Britain, the Igbos, a Christian tribe in oil rich region, declared independence due to Islamic attacks on them, but failed.
Nigerian government tried to prevent tribalism from breaking up the country, by established states between ethnic/religious lines
Conflicts over Nigerian government exploitation of the oil occurred with destructive protests.
Quebec Silent Revolution
Quiet Revolution: The peaceful change of government in Quebec.
Divide between French nationalist Quebec people and British.
Canada stayed together despite efforts for Quebec independence.
8.6 Unit Notes
Newly independent State
Israel Founded
First proposal of creation of Jewish state at the First Zionist Congress.
The Balfour Declaration favored the establishment of the Jewish state in Palestine despite Muslim occupation.
As Britain gained mandate of former Ottoman lands, Zionists began to immigrate from Europe and some of the Middle east to Palestine, angering Arabs in Palestine losing their way of life.
The United Nations responded to Arab opposition by dividing the newly Jewish part of Palestine into Israel.
War broke out quickly between Israel supported by the United States, and Palestine supported by Arab countries. Arab forces attempted to invade Israel but failed and 400,000 Palestinians became refugees.
Six-Day War of 1967: Israel conquered land from Egypt, West Bank, Jordan, and Syria at once.
Yom Kippur War of 1973: Israel repelled a secret invasion from Egypt and Syria.
Camp David Accords: Peace treaty from U.S. President Jimmy Carter, accepted between Egypt and Israel but rejected by Palestine and supporting Arab state.
Palestinian Liberation Organization: Formed by Arab states wanting return of Israel occupied lands and creation of independent State of Palestine.
During 21st century, Palestine split into the Fatah and the Hamas, while Israel implemented harsh polcies on them and took over more of their considered land. Arabs developed hatred towards Israel and the U.S. and instability.
Cambodian War and Independence
Cambodia pressured France to grant it’s independence in 1953.
Getting drawn into the Vietnam War, a communist organization called Khmer Rogue overthrew Cambodia’’s right-wing government.
The Khmer Rogue instituted a ruthless cultural revolution like China did, killing a quarter of the population.
After the Vietnam War, Vietnam helped Cambodia regain stability, and withdrew in 1989.
The United Nations monitored Cambodia’s free elections, and the country developed a free democratic government with a market-like economy.
India and Pakistan Division
During the partition, many Hindus and Sikhs left Pakistan to India, and many Muslims left India for Pakistan, resulting in 500,000 - 1 million deaths.
Despite similar democratic governments, distrust between the two countries grew.
Kashmir Conflict: Both India and Pakistan claimed the mountain region of Kashmir on their borders, leading to armed conflict and split control with China gaining ~20%.
Women's Power in South Asia
In both India and Pakistan, women had voting rights.
Sirimavo Bandaranaike: World’s first female prime minister after she was voted on in Ceylon/Sri Lanka, 1960.
After being voted out and then back on, she implemented many radical reforms, but the economy was slow and she lost power once again in 1977
After India’s first prime minister died, his daughter, Indira Gandhi, took over and strengthened India’s economy.
Before being assassinated in 1984, Indira overcame a national emergency in 1975 from poverty, and grew the economy greatly as well as reforming corrupt laws.
Benazir Bhutto: First elected female leader in a Muslim state, as prime minister of Pakistan from 1988-1990 she failed to help the economy and was later exiled(1999), then assassinated (2007)
Tanzania Modernization
United Republic of Tanzania established independence from the British in 1961.
Julius Nyerere: Served as first president of Tanzania, instituted socials ideas and campaigns for development in education and farming.
Could not pull country out of economic hardship and poverty, leading to his resignation.
Emigration
Large amounts of refugees from Southeast Asia emigrated to Britain after WWII.
Metropole: Large city of a former colonial ruler.
Vietnamese emigrated to France.
Filipinos emigrated to the United States.
Migrants found jobs in the medical department, railroads and airports, keeping economic and cultural ties strong.
8.7 NOTES
Global resistance to Established power structures
Nonviolent Resistance
In India, Mohandas Gandhi led marches, boycotts, and fasts leading to India’s independence from Britain in 1947.
Martin Luther King Jr. was one of the leading activists in the U.S. civil rights movement.
Brown v Board of Education: Court decision to ban racial segregation of schools in the U.S.
Public transit boycotts and mass marches.
Socialist lawyer, Nelson Mandela, led resistances to apartheid in South Africa with nonviolent protests.
Challenges to Soviet Power in Eastern Power
As Polish workers demonstrated against Soviet domination, Wladyslaw Gomulka pursued independent policies as secretary of the Polish communist party, while being loyal to the USSR.
In Hungary, protesters convinced leader Imre Nagy to end Soviet control, declare neutrality during cold war by leaving the Warsaw Pact, and allowing free elections.
Soviet Union responded by successfully invading Hungary, generating many refugees.
In Czechoslovakia, secretary Alexander Dubcek increased freedoms for citizens and made the political system more democratic. However, Soviets and their allies crushed the movement.
Brezhnev Doctrine: Responding to the independence in Czechoslovakia, a official Soviet document stated that the Union and their allies would intervene in members threatening socialist growth.
Year of Revolt
In 1968, many key revolts occurred around the world.
In Yugoslavia, students marched against the authoritarian government.
In Poland and Ireland, there were religious protests.
Brazil experienced movements for worker and education reforms.
In Japan, students protest university and financial policies, and Japanese support for the US in Vietnam.
In France there were student protests for reforms in education, civil rights, and worker rights which were responded by police brutality. 10 million French workers went of strike bringing new elections.
In addition to protests for civil rights in the United States, there were protests against the Vietnam War, such as the one at Kent State University, 1970.
Age of Terrorism
Individuals unaffiliated with governments committed terrorist acts around the world.
Northern Irish protested against the UK keeping them as not independent.
Most of Ireland Roman Catholics but Northern Ireland dominated by Protestants, leading to discrimination towards the Catholics. They wanted to become part of Ireland, not UK.
Catholics fought as the Irish Republican Army, they committed acts of terrorism in British cities. Protestants fought as the Ulster Defense Association.
Conflict went on from 1969-1994 with a 3,500 deaths.
The Basque Separatist Movement wanted independence for the Basque region of Spain, they killed over 820 people until they decided to settle the issue politically.
The Shining Path Organization wanted to overthrow Peru’s government and replace it with a communist one like Mao Zedong’s and the Khmer Rouge.
Led by Abimael Guzman, the Shining Path killed over 37,000 in 20 years of terrorism until the leaders admitted defeat and started negotiations.
Small groups like the Boko Haram, Al-Shabaab, the Levant (ISIL), and the Taliban used a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam to justify terrorism, mostly on Muslims.
Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden attacked many different countries including the U.S. on September 11th, 2001, where over 3,000 people died in crashed planes. The U.S. and allies weakened Al-Qaeda and took bin Laden down in 2011.
The United States faced terrorism from groups associated with white-nationalism and discrimination against the minorities in the country.
Response of Militarized States
Dictator Francisco Franco of Spain executed and imprisoned political dissenters until his death in 1975 led Spain towards a democratic government.
The “Butcher of Uganda”, Idi Amin, was a military dictator of Uganda and through his self-declared leadership for life he constructed policies worsening ethnic tensions, denying human rights, and increased refugees.
Responsible for 500,000 deaths among targeted ethnic groups and expelled 60,000 Asians.
Ugandan nationalists and Tanzanian troops took Amin down when he tried to invade Tanzania.
Military Industry Complex
As countries lacked facilities for weapon production, arms trade spread rapidly during this time of many conflicts.
The Military Industry Complex was growing so powerful in America that it threatened the country’s democracy.
8.8 NOTES
End of the Cold War
Final Decades
Agreements to limit nuclear weapons important to end of Cold War
Detente: Period of relaxation of strained relations between the Soviet Union and the US.
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT): Treaty designed to freeze number of intercontinental ballistic missiles the two rival countries could keep.
Detente was helpful to the Soviet Union because:
Soviet Union was no longer growing, thus in a economic crisis.
Soviet bloc countries were protesting for freedom from Soviet control.
Soviet Union had conflicts over border with China, both communist countries.
The United States was struggling with the negative press from the Vietnam War and the economy.
The US sent grain to the drought struggling Soviet Union, helping them and American farmers.
Soviet-Afghan War: Soviets invaded Afghanistan trying to support their communist government against Muslim rebels. Despite many refugees and casualties, the Soviets were unsuccessful and withdrew in 1989, while Afghanistan remained in a civil war and the Soviets were weakened.
President Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) referred to the Soviet Union as the “evil empire” and sent support to the Afghans, increasing Cold War tensions.
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): United States created a missile defense program that would supposedly destroy any Soviet missiles fired towards them.
As Soviets had no system to respond with, they objected this plan.
With tensions increasing in the 1980s, other nations believed they had to choose a side
Progressive communist leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, came to power (Soviet Union) in 1985.
Perestroika: attempts to restructure the Soviet economy allowing elements of free enterprise.
Glasnost: policy of opening up Soviet society and granting greater freedoms.
Gorbachev and Reagan liked each other in their meetings and created a working relationship.
The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF): 1987 treaty agreeing on restricting intermediate-range nuclear weapons. Heavily reduced risk of nuclear war.
With Cold War pressures cooling, Gorbachev started to implement his policies.
Fall of the Soviet Union
Gorbachev’s program ended economic support for Soviet satellite countries, and ultimately was responsible for the fall of the Soviet Union.
Once those countries had a taste of freedom, and started democratic reform movements including the fall of the Berlin Wall and unification of Germany.
Soviet republics revolted and declared independence.
Warsaw Pact dissolved.
Russia emerged as the strongest of the new republics.
With the Cold War over and the Soviet Union dissolved, trade and the world was ore interconnected than ever before.
Interconnections of the world led to wealth for some but struggles for others.
World left to deal with genocides, terrorism, environmental degradation, ethnic conflicts, new democracies, economic inequality, and global epidemics.
UNIT 9
9.1 Unit Notes
Advances in Technology and exchange
Communication and transportation
The radio brought news and culture to a wide range of people.
Air travel and shipping containers promoted the widespread movement of goods and people.
Social media helped human right protests in the US and in the Arab Spring movement, share their issues with the world.
Green Revolution
The Green Revolution was a series of agricultural innovations in the mid 20th century, which dramatically increased global food production.
Scientists created new methods for grain production that they believed would solve world hunger.
Crossbreeding: breeding two varieties of a plant to create a hybrid.
Genetic Engineering: manipulating a cell or organism to its basic characteristics.
Slash and Burn: Used by countries such as Brazil, forests were burned down and plowed for agricultural land.
Small farmers struggled as they couldn’t afford pesticides/fertilizers like large landowner, forcing them to sell their land to those owners, resulting in unequal land distribution.
Chemicals used by farmers damaged the environment.
The revolution brought mechanization to the farming industry, decreasing the amount of jobs.
Energy Technologies
As technologies developed, petroleum and natural gas fueled industrial output and productivity.
Nuclear research for the weapons also led to it being a source of energy for homes. But because of nuclear power-plant accidents, the building of them decreased starting in the 1980s.
The expansion of fossil fuels has led to serious environmental damage and climate change.
Renewable energy production has been developed to fight fossil fuels, but only make up a small portion of the world energy source.
Medical Innovations
Penicillin became the world’s first antibiotic in 1928.
Antibiotic: A type of medication that is used to treat bacterial infections. It works by either killing the bacteria or preventing them from multiplying.
WWII antibiotics saved many soldiers from minor infections.
As they spread to civilian use, many feared the overuse of them would lead to drug-resistant diseases.
Birth Control Pills were used first in 1960, they were reliable and accessible.
Fertility Rates lowered as a result.
Gender roles and sexual practices changed.
Vaccines begun to be used for preventing diseases, preventing many deaths but not as many as they could’ve due to distribution issues.
9.2 NOTES
Disease in Poverty
Despite cures, diseases can sick around in areas with poor living conditions and lack of access to health care.
Malaria is a parasitic disease spread by mosquitoes in tropical areas, killed over 600,000 people each year early 21st century.
Spread quickly through poor areas in Africa where mosquito protection wasn’t accessible.
Doctors Without Borders treated ~1.7 million annually in South Saharan Africa. They implemented many strategies to prevent the spread but a vaccine wasn’t approved until October 2021.
Tuberculosis is an airborne infection, spreading through coughing or sneezing, that damages the lungs and is deadly.
Cure in 1946 was developed using antibiotics and rest, these vaccines were distributed to countries many cases.
Strain resistant to the usual vaccine appeared and spread quickly through prisons, WHO began a world wide campaign against it in the 2010s.
Cholera is a bacterial disease that spreads through contaminated water that kills 95,000 people per year.
People in poorly sanitized areas are very vulnerable as vaccines do not reduce the need for prevention. A severe infection can kill you within hours.
Polio is a disease caused by water contaminated by a virus in fecal matter, can cause paralysis or death.
Jonas Salk announced a injection vaccine to fight the disease in 1955, and Albert Sabin created an oral one 6 years later.
Despite polio being eliminated in most countries after campaigns from the UN and other organizations, it still exists in places like Afghanistan and Pakistan where there is war and political unrest, making it hard to distribute vaccines.
Epidemics
In WWI, more soldiers died from disease than battle, calling the need for medical innovations.
The flu became widespread in America and was spread to the rest of the world through soldiers.
HIV/AIDS is a disease that weakens the immune system so that it can be defeated by any disease.
Spread through exchange of bodily fluids, caused panic between 1981-2014.
Antiretroviral Drugs were created in the mid 1990s to treat the virus. However, they are very expensive meaning they aren’t accessible in poorer areas that don’t provide them for free.
Discovered in 1976 Congo, Ebola is a disease caused by a virus spreading from African fruit bats to humans and other primates.
Causes internal bleeding, organ failure, and likely death.
2014 outbreak in West Africa caused panic but was contained by public health efforts, led by the WHO.
Chronic Diseases
As people lived longer, they started to develop chronic diseases like heart disease.
Christiaan Barnard performed first heart transplant in 1967, a major innovation.
Robert Jarvik designed the first artificial heart as a temporary treatment.
Alzheimer’s Disease is an extreme form of dementia where patients can eventually remember nothing, not even bodily functions, leading to death. There are treatments but no cure.
International Terrorism and War
After WWII, there was an increasing interest in maintaining international security - organizations like NATO, United Nations, International Criminal Court in The Hague (prosecutes war crimes), and NGOs (Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders) to provide international aid to those in need
War in the Gulf
Iraq wanted to gain more control of oil reserves so they invaded Kuwait in 1990 under leadership of Saddam Hussein
United Nations sent forces to drive Iraqis out in early 1991 - now called Persian Gulf War
UN liberated Kuwait and put severe limitations on Iraq’s military and economic activity (although Hussein remained in power for another 10 years)
In 2003, coalition of countries, mostly US and Britain invaded Iraq to oust Hussein - Hussein was captured in December 2003 and a democratic government was formed in 2005
Despite conflicts and terrorism between Sunni, Shiites, and Kurds groups, a Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani and a Shia minister, Nouri ai-Maliki were elected, but they still have faced a number of challenges
Taliban, Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden
In early 1980s, Soviets sent troops to Afghanistan under at request of Marxist military leader Nur Muhammad Taraki
Afghanis opposed communism and fought back until Soviets withdrew troops - left a power void that warring factions vied to fill
Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist regime, filled the void after 14 years of fighting
Provided a safe haven for Osama bin Laden, the Saudi leader of the international terrorist network Al Qaeda, who specifically despised the US
US:
Supports Israel
Had troops stationed in Saudi Arabia
Is the primary agent of globalization believed to be infecting Islamic culture
On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attacked US by hijacking 4 US planes and flying 2 of them into the World Trade Centre in New York, 1 into the Pentagon, and 1 into a field in Pennsylvania - 3000 people died
US immediately declared a war on terrorism and invaded Afghanistan - the Taliban was removed from power and Osama bin Laden was killed, but Al Qaeda still survives
Many terror attacks linked to Islamic fundamentalists still occur throughout Europe and the Middle East
Environmental Change
Global integration has caused global environmental concerns
Green revolution of 50s and 60s led to destructions of traditional landscapes, reduced species diversity, and social conflicts to produce inexpensive food
Global warming is worsening at the fastest pace ever due to human activity - outcome is uncertain, but industrialized countries are not doing enough to limit their environmental damage
Global Health Crisis
Epidemics in countries with poor sanitation are still an issue - WHO (World Health Organization) works to combat them
AIDS is a major crisis - 25% of African adults live with AIDS and treatment is expensive
Global health issues highlight global disparities as the disproportionately affect low-income individuals
Age of the Computer
The personal computer was developed in the 1980s, followed by the Internet
In the 1990s, computers became commonplace in homes
Social Media has changed the way information spreads and has brought people closer together
Internet has also been a method of government surveillance and storing of user data, which is considered by many a breech of privacy