Exam 2
Digestive System
Digestion- Chemical breakdown of complex food into smaller molecules that get absorbed by the body, giving us energy
Proteins → amino acids → starches → sugar → energy
2 kinds: intra and extracellular BRING UR DISSECTION BOXEZ
Intracellular and extracellular digestion
Intra: inside
Extra: outside
Intracellular:
Protozoa single celled microscopic organisms and Sponges are multicellular
Pinocytosis and phagocytosis
Microorganisms take in substances by engulfing them
Active transport
Some organisms use this type of transport to eat and poop
Flatworms have secular digestive tract
Food enters the mouth and goes into a chamber where digestion and absorption happens
Waste exits the mouth
Some animals have tubular digestive systems;
tube-like structures present (digestive tract is running from the mouth to the anus TUBE WITHIN A TUBE)
Waste exits the asshole
Arthropods and annelids
Arthro: insects
Annelids: ringworms
Storing area, grinding area?
In vertebrates digestive tube is much longer to increase surface area for absorption
Excretory System
Ammonia is a byproduct of protein metabolism
Removes waste material from the body
Some aquatic organisms excrete ammonia directly into the water through gills.
Invertebrates maintain body salt, and water balance by eliminating water that enters the body by osmosis?
Therefore the excretory system is adapted by salt and dumping excess water (regulated by ADH for water and aldosterone MINERALOCORTICOIDz for electrolytes)
Kidneys are the organs that filter water, reabsorb nutrients, and excrete the rest
Most nutrients reabsorbed, nitrogenous waste excreted
Regulate salt concentration of body fluids
Mamallia convert nitrogenous wastes into urea which is a soluble molecule excreted in the urine
For humans
Kidneys filter blood and reabsorb nutrients and the rest is excreted
Nutrients are reabsorbed back into the blood, only certain nutrients are secreted
Humans filter 180 L of blood everyday
Approximately 2 L of urine is formed
Urogenital system
Urine samples are used to test for diseases, toxic substances, and pathogens
In mammals, excretory and reproductive system is referred to as the urogenital system\\
Oogenesis - dumbass production of eggs in ovaries
Spermatogenesis - even more of a dumbass production of sperm in testes
Eggs are not released until the female reaches sexual maturity
If fertilization happens, embryo is implanted in the uterus
Kidney Structure (Pg. 367)
Renal cortex - outermost region of kidney (lighter)
Renal Medulla - Darker region of the kidney w/ renal pyramids (darker)
Calyxes - Collect urine from pyramids and puts it in the renal pelvis (innermost region) and after into the ureters and into the urinary bladder and from there its excreted out via urethra
From ureters → urinary bladder → urethra
NEPHRON - functional unit of a kidney; produces urine
Glomerulus - cluster of capillaries surrounded by the bowman's capsule (first part of filtration)
Water reabsorption happens at all stages
PCT and DCT
In the PCT, reabsorption of large amounts of water, electrolytes and nutrients
In the DCT, reabsorbs water and solutes (biggie molecules)
Ascending and Descending Limb
Descending limb: reabsorption of water through aquaporins and diffusion of water
Ascending limb: water is reabsorbed - not true its sodium goes out into medulla through active transport
Collecting Duct
Final stage of reabsorption of water
Good for maintaining pH and solute concentration
Mammal Reproductive System
Males
Testes originate in scrotum in adult males
Sperm is produced in seminiferous tubules inside of testees
Seminiferous tubules pass into epididymis (tightly coiled structure)
Epididymis flows into vas deferens which is a sperm duct
Then enters urethra, accessory glands which excrete fluids and nourish the sperm
Urethral gland
Volvo urethral gland
On the dorsal side of each ovary, there's an oviduct (IN PIGS) (same thing as fallopian tubes in human BEANS -)
Eggs which are released from ovaries enter the oviduct
Eggs move forward towards the uterus with the help of cilia
Cilia- helps sweep egg toward uterus in pigs (haram)
Pig uterus has two uterine pons where the uterus opens to the outside through a muscular tube called a vagina
Microanatomy of TEEEESSSSSTEEEESS
Primary spermatocyte is formed
First meiotic division becomes the secondary spermatocyte
The second meiotic division transforms into a spermatid
One spermatocyte = 4 spermz
Ovary Microanatomy
FSH stimulates the development of graafian follicle
Fluid filled capsule in which the egg matures
Ruptures during ovulation to release the egg
At sexual maturity at each menstrual cycle, hormones from the pituitary gland stimulate the follicles to secrete the female hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
Starts egg maturation
1 follicle = release 1 egg per cycle
Other follicles will degenerate in form of menstrual cycle
multiple eggs are ovulated in one cycle
u better not write this shit imma get pissed off.
Because its a lot to take in ;)
Bro these notes are COOOKED
wowww
Bacteria, algae, protozoa, and sponges use cilia or flagella to move
Chordates
depend on muscles for movement;
Messages sent to nervous system and sent to hand
Millions of reflexes
UNIMAGINABLE
Muscles contain two chemicals: important for muscle contraction:
Actin (without muscles won’t contract, also for myosin)
Myosin
Muscle Fibers
Muscles are antagonistically arranged
One muscle contracts while the other relaxes
Longitudinal and Circular muscles (pg. 396 good photo of cock)
Human Muscle
Extensors
The muscles that increase the angle at bones
ex. Tricep muscles
Flexors
The muscles that decrease the angle at bones
Flexor muscle- ex. Bicep
STUFORALLAH
One point of a muscle will be originating, the other will be the insertion point
Belly of the muscle → point between origin and insertion points
Voluntary Muscles
Those in which we can control
Ex. arm muscles
Involuntary muscles
Heart muscles, digestive system, respiratory tract, cardiac muscles
Ex. boners
Cardiac muscle - blood pressure
Actin and myosin are not properly arranged
Skeletal Muscle
Actin and myosin are properly arranged
Hydrostatic Skeleton (Earworth)
Use cavity filled with water that provides support
Also allows movement via muscle contraction
Skeletal system made of water pressure instead of just solid bones
Endoskeleton
Inside the body
Exoskeleton
Outside the body
Hard outer covering that provides support
Smooth skeletal and cardiac muscles (pg. 398)
Skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscles made up of muscle fibers
Longest they can go up to is 30 cm long
The cells in the muscle fiber are multinucleated
Nucleus is oval shaped
Seen beneath the plasma membrane called the Sarcolemma
There are longitudinally arranged microfibers
Alternating light i-bands and dark a-bands
Striped appearance
Fibers ( made of microfilaments (myofidrant?)
Protein made of actin and myosin
Generates force for the muscle
Sarcomere
Z-discs
Anchoring joints for holding the muscle filaments in place (give strength)
All come together to give strength in the muscle
When relaxed the sarcomere is longer, it shortens when in action
Shortens due to sliding of actin filaments over myosin filaments (pg.398 - go over picture of bands)
Cardiac muscles (pg. 397)
Intercalated discs → creates action potential
Important for beating of heart
Exoskeleton
Hard outer covering that protects the body
Barrier to prevent water loss
Ex. crayfish, spiders,
Made of complex sugar molecules
Chitin
Insects have hard Sclerites (greek word meaning HARD- me rn)
Head and thorax → Joined with suture lines
The ass part → joined with pleural membrane
Help contract abdomen
Draw back of exoskeleton
Limits growth im gonna drink some water and break my fast now
Molting
Insect sheds shell
When insect grows
New shell grows
Endoskeleton
Internal supporting system
Composed of Cartilage and Bones
Long Bones (pg. 404)
Proximal Epiphysis → Top of Bone (Spongy Bone w/ epiphyseal line or plate if child)
Distal Epiphysis → Bottom of Bone (Spongy Bone w/ epiphyseal line or plate if child)
Diaphysis → Middle of bone (Compact bone)
Yellow bone marrow
Red bone marrow- in the spongy bone
Lacunae
Osteocytes- Cells inside lacunae in bone marrow
Haversian Canal → where veins and stuff pass through
Osteons → Functional unit of bones
Lamellae → make up osteons
Appendicular Skeleton → hand and leg bones
Axial skeleton → Ribs, sternum and skull
Girdle → bones that connect appendicular skeleton to the axial skeleton
Cervical → Thoracic → lumbar → Sacrum → Coccyx(tailbone) (humans)
Cordal for animals without tail
Pectoral Girdle anchors limbs, scapula and clavicle
Pelvic Girdle anchors ilium, ostium and pubis
Forms os coxae
In the hands
Carpals → Metacarpals → Phalanges
Feet
Tarsals → Metatarsals → Phalanges
3 Slides
Cardiac Muscle
Darker → Intercalated discs
Smooth Muscle
Not well arranged cause they not like us
Skeletal Muscle
Lots of fashion, beautifully arranged -Sonya
Chapter 31 - Nervous System
Ur mother is a giant lizard, she looks incredibly ugly
3 Main Functions
Receives signals from outside or inside body
Process information that is received and send to the nervous system
Respond via appropriate muscle/gland
Reflexes
Billions of reflexes work for us each day
Sensory Receptors
Specialized cells that detect shit (changes in temp, pressure, etc.)
Example- sensory censors have cells that sense heat
Action potential- created when skin feeling hot surface (stimuli)
Signals comes from central nervous system to appropriate place for response
CNS
Consists of Neurons
Help with decision making
Action potential can differ based on situation
If frightened → he/she may gasp
If underwater → nerve centers won’t let you gasp
Vertebrates and Invertebrates
neurons are similar in structure
Vertebrate, brain dominated Nervous System
Invertebrates, Nervou system dominates them
Simple nervous system
Basic structure with limited capabilities
Found in Hydra (pg. 412)
Nerve net → diffused network of interconnected nerve cells
Flat worms → Tracks of neurons running throughout the entire length of the body to the anterior end (pg. 412)
Cephalization → Sensory and feeding organs such as mouth and jaws on the anterior end (like earthworm)
Cephalopods
CNS made up of brain and ventral nerve cords
Ganglia clustered at head and thorax
Complex nervous system
Highly organized with brain and spinal cord
Chromatophilic Substance is the fluid inside the body of a neuron
Invertebrates
Invertebrates → Increased neuron conduction velocity (fast transmission of signal along an axon)
Larger diameter of an axon → greater conduction velocity
Giant fiber w/ diameter of 1 mm (bc stuff above)
Glial Cells
Not neurons, don’t have to do with their function (no electrical impulses)
Provide support, protection, insulation and nutrition to neurons
Cross Section of Spinal Cord (pg. 414)
Butterfly shaped structure with white matter and grey matter
Cluster of neurons dorsal root ganglia
From the peripheral nervous system to the cns
By taking information from the sensory receptors
In between butterfly-like structure, there is the central canal that maintains cerebrospinal fluid
Root ganglia are clusters of ganglia that process signals that enter the spinal cord
Spinal Reflex
Pain receptors → afferent signal → reflexes → efferent effect
Afferent Neurons → Arrives in the brain
Efferent Neurons → Exits the brain
Patellar knee jerk
Connection between terminal end of motor neuron and smooth muscle
Specialized synapses where the motor neurons connect with muscle fibers
Peripheral nervous System
All nervous system that is outside of CNS
Outside of brain and spinal cord
Afferent → Enters CNS
Efferent → exits CN
Somatic Nervous System
Controls voluntary movement
Autonomic
Controls involuntary glands, smooth muscles
Secretion of hormone
Digestive system, cardiac system,
Sympathetic
Fight or flight
Involuntary
Raises breathing rate, heart rate, etc.
Parasympathetic
Rest and Digest
Part of autonomic nervous system
After stressor body will start to relax (416)
Brain
2 hemispheres and 4 parts
Cerebrum (largest part)
Cerebellum
Medulla Oblongata
12 pairings of Cranial Nerves
Olfactory → Sense of smell
Optic → Vision
Oculomotor → Eye movement, pupil constriction, and lens accommodation
Trochlear → Eye movement (moves superior oblique muscle, allowing downward eye movement)
Trigeminal → Sensation of the face and control of chewing muscles
Abducens → Eye movement (moves lateral rectus muscle, allowing outward eye movement)
Facial → Facial expression, taste sensation, and salivation
Vestibulocochlear → Hearing and balance
Glossopharyngeal → Taste sensation, swallowing, and salivation
Vagus → Control of organs in the neck, chest, and abdomen, including the heart
Accessory → Shoulder and neck movement (innervates trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles)
Hypoglossal → Movement of the tongue
Optic and Olfactory are only sensory
Vagus is only nerve which travels down brain, through thorax, to abdomen
Eye Balllls
Cornea → transparent layer in front of the eye
At the back of the eye its called the sclera (same structure tho)
Sclera- white of the eye
Iris → Gives color to the eye
Pupil → dark spot in between the iris (can constrict)
Lens →
Ciliary Muscles → hold lens in place
Choroid Layer → Vascular layer with a lot of blood vessels (dark, black, lebron james)
Retina → Light sensitive layer at the back of the eye that receives images and sends them as electrical impulses through the optic nerve and into the brain
Big layer of different layers and sensory stuff chill chevere
Rods and cones
Rods → Black and Grey
Cones → Rest of colors
Fovea Centralis → spot in the back of the retina (above optic nerve) that has the highest concentration of red and green photoreceptors