Nationalism and the Creation of the Modern Nation-State in 19th-Century Europe

State of Europe at the Turn of the 19th Century

• At the beginning of the $19^{th}$ century, the political landscape of Europe was characterized by a few established nation-states and many fragmented or imperial territories:

  • Powerful Nation-States: Great Britain and France.

  • Internally Fragmented State: Spain was large but lacked internal cohesion.

  • Small, Peripheral Nation-States: Portugal, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and various Scandinavian countries.

  • Fragments of a ‘Nationality’: Most people lived in small states that were essentially pieces of a larger cultural identity, particularly the small German states and Italian states.

  • Dynastic and Bureaucratic Empires: Large portions of the population were ruled by dynasties, including:

    • The Romanov dynasty in Russia.

    • Habsburg Austria.

    • The Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa from its center in what is now Turkey.

The Concept of Nationalism and the Nation-State

• The ‘Virus’ of Nationalism: The French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars ($1789-1815$) acted as a catalyst, spreading the desire for national self-determination.

• Definition of a Nation: A group of people united by common factors, which may include:

  • Language and culture.

  • Real or imagined ethnic unity.

  • A shared history or a shared story, often incorporating legendary elements.

• The Goal (Nation-State): The objective of nationalism is for a ‘nation’ to become a ‘nation-state’ characterized by its own distinct territory and its own government.

• Methods of Formation: The creation of a nation-state typically followed one of two paths:

  • Amalgamation: Combining multiple small states into a single larger political unit (e.g., Germany, Italy).

  • Secession: Breaking away from a larger empire or country (e.g., Greece, Poland, Belgium).

Phases of Nationalism in 19th-Century Europe

• Phase One ($1815-1848$): The Idealistic and Revolutionary Phase

  • Nationalism during this era was defined by the idea that a ‘people’ should live under one government in a defined territory.

  • Interconnected Movements: Nationalism was closely linked to:

    • Liberalism: The movement seeking constitutional government, equality under the law, and civil liberties.

    • Romanticism: Focused on the ‘spirit of a people’ ($Volksgeist$).

    • Revolution: Efforts against traditional authorities like old dynasties and empires.

  • Napoleon’s Legacy: Even when conquered peoples embraced French Revolutionary ideals (overthrowing monarchs), they rejected French domination, desiring their own independent nation-states.

• Phase Two (Post-$1848$): The New Realism

  • The failure of the $1848$ revolutions led to a shift from idealism to ‘power politics’ ($Realpolitik$).

  • Collaboration: Traditional monarchs began working with liberal nationalists to create modern nation-states.

  • Methodology: Diplomacy backed by military force replaced revolutionary zeal.

The Congress of Vienna and Post-Napoleonic Stability

• The Congress of Vienna ($1815$): Conservative leaders and diplomats, most notably the Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich, met to redraw the map of Europe.

• Disregard for National Identity: The diplomats viewed nationalism and liberalism as threats to stability. Boundaries were set without regard for the desires of nationalities:

  • German Speakers: Remained divided under many different governments; the German-speaking Austrian Empire ruled over numerous Slavic peoples.

  • Poland: No independent Polish state existed.

  • Italy: The peninsula was divided into several states, with parts of the population living under Austrian or French rule.

  • Belgium: What would later become Belgium was united with Holland and placed under the rule of the Dutch king.

Revolutionary Crises ($1821-1848$)

• The Greek War of Independence ($1821-1832$):

  • Greeks revolted against Ottoman rule in $1821$.

  • With assistance from Western European powers, Greece gained independence by $1829$ and was formally recognized as a state in $1832$.

  • Religious Significance: The war was framed as Orthodox Christians revolting against a Muslim Ottoman Empire.

  • Philhellenism: Western European intellectuals were enthralled by the cause because ‘Greece’ represented the classical world (Homer, Sophocles, Plato, Aristotle). Notable figures included Lord Byron, who died at Missolonghi.

  • This struggle fanned liberal-revolutionary-Romantic nationalism across the continent.

• The Revolutions of $1830$:

  • France: A brief revolution replaced a king who failed to respect the constitution.

  • Belgium: An uprising in Brussels against Dutch rule resulted in an independent Belgium.

  • Poland: A revolt against Russian rule was initiated but was brutally suppressed.

• The ‘Springtime of the Peoples’ ($1848$):

  • A revolution in Paris ended the constitutional monarchy and triggered revolutions across Europe.

  • Nationalism as ‘Political Religion’: Illustrated in Fr d ric Sourieu’s painting, ‘La R publique universelle d mocratique et sociale’, where nations are seen united in ‘Fraternity’ under Christ.

  • Failure of $1848$: Established governments eventually regained control due to conflicts between bourgeois and working-class revolutionaries and the difficulty of establishing new states solo.

The Unification of Germany and Italy

• New Realism in Action: Both unifications were led by a single smaller state under a king and an ambitious prime minister.

• German Unification ($1815-1871$):

  • Leadership: Prussia, under King Wilhelm I and Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck.

  • Bismarck’s Philosophy: Expressed in his $1862$ ‘blood and iron’ speech (‘It is not by speeches and majority resolutions that the great questions of the time are decided… but by iron and blood’).

  • The Strategy of Three Wars:

    1. $1864$: Prussia and Austria vs. Denmark to liberate Schleswig-Holstein from Danish rule.

    2. $1866$: Prussia vs. Austria to assert Prussian leadership over smaller German states.

    3. $1870$: Prussia vs. France to create a united German Empire without Austria.

  • Outcome: In $1871$, King Wilhelm I became the constitutional monarch of a federal German state dominated by Prussia.

• Italian Unification:

  • Leadership: The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, under King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Camillo di Cavour.

  • Military and Diplomacy:

    • $1859$: Allied with France to take Italian territory from Austria.

    • $1861$: United Italy was declared after the revolutionary Garibaldi overthrew the kingdom dominating southern Italy and surrendered the territories to Victor Emmanuel II.

    • $1866$: Allied with Prussia against Austria to acquire Venetia.

    • $1870$: Captured Rome from the papacy when French troops (defending the papal territories) withdrew due to the war with Prussia.

Key Comparisons: Germany vs. Italy

• Commonality of Lead States: Prussia (Germany) and Piedmont-Sardinia (Italy).

• Role of Conflict: War was essential to both strategies (Realism).

• Constitutional Monarchy: Both ended the process as constitutional monarchies (Wilhelm I and Victor Emmanuel II).

• Opposition: Both had to contend with the Austrian Empire, and both utilized strategic alliances with or against France.