6.1-6.4

The Industrial Revolution

Introduction

  • Unit 6.2 focuses on the Industrial Revolution.
  • The Gorham MFG Company is mentioned, setting the stage for the topic.

Key Questions

  • What are the necessary conditions for an Industrial Revolution to begin in a region?
  • What technologies existed in Europe before the Industrial Revolution?
  • What new technologies emerged from the Revolution?

Great Britain's Advantages

  • Natural Resources: Abundant coal reserves were crucial.
  • Infrastructure:
    • Ports and navigable rivers facilitated trade.
    • Canals provided increased access to trade for more areas.
    • Well-maintained infrastructure was advantageous.
  • Workforce: A ready workforce with skilled mechanics was available.
  • Capital: Money was available for investments.
  • Government: A stable government supported economic activities.
  • This set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.

Agricultural Revolution

  • Enclosure Movement:
    • High food supply at low costs.
    • English families had more disposable income to purchase manufactured goods, increasing demand.

The Enclosure Movement

  • Historical Context: The English and Dutch had been enclosing common lands since the 1500s.
  • Common Lands: These were shared areas used for grazing, small gardens, and burials.
  • Impact:
    • The Agricultural Revolution led to more common lands being closed off.
    • This placed a burden on family farms.
    • Forcing people to move to cities.

Population Growth in Britain

  • The Agricultural Revolution helped create the right conditions for the Industrial Revolution.
  • Population Increase:
    • 1750: 9.3 million (England, Scotland, Wales).
    • 1800: 15.4 million.
    • 1850: 27.3 million.

Supporting a Growing Population

  • Increased demand:
    • More food.
    • Textiles.
    • More housing and household goods (plates, forks, chairs).

The British Government

  • Stability: The British government was well-established and stable.
  • Taxation: Low taxes helped the commercial market.
  • Investment: Plenty of money was available for investment.
  • Infrastructure Spending: The government helped pay for needed infrastructure.
    • Roads & canals.
  • Overseas Colonies: Helped bring in more products to manufacture items.

Trade Overview

  • Raw goods were imported.
  • Manufactured goods were exported.
  • Triangular trade involving sugar, slaves, livestock, and grain.
  • The Middle Passage involved slaves.

London

  • Maps of London from 1666 and 1897 illustrate the city's growth and changes.
  • London transformed over time from the Great Fire to a developed urban center.

The British Empire

  • A map showcases the extent of the British Empire, including colonies and territories across the globe.

Start of the Revolution

  • Slow Process: The Industrial Revolution was a gradual development.
  • Investment: The British had people ready to invest in new markets and items.
  • Textile Industry: The cotton textile industry was the first to see new machinery.
  • Key Inventions: Flying Shuttle, Spinning Jenny, & the Water Frame.

The Factory

  • Larger Factories: Larger machinery led to larger factories, competing with cottage industries.
  • Discontent: Workers blamed machines for lower wages and unemployment.
  • Luddites:
    • Destroyed machinery and attacked factories.
  • Location: Factories were located near sources of power, leading to rapid population growth in some areas.

Capital

  • Definition: Money and resources needed to build a business.
  • Funding:
    • Borrowing money from banks.
    • Companies owned by shareholders.
  • Private Industry: Capitalism.

Technology

  • Steam Engine:
    • 1712: Thomas Newcomen developed the steam engine.
    • 1764: James Watt improved the engine.

More Technology

  • Cotton Gin: Eli Whitney's cotton gin separated seeds from raw cotton.
  • Smelting: 1709: Abraham Darby smelted iron with coal instead of charcoal, making it less expensive and of higher quality.

Newcomen Engine

  • Illustration of the Newcomen Engine and its parts.
  • Used to remove water from mines.

Coal and Iron

  • Coal Deposits: Britain had plenty of coal deposits.
  • Coal Mining: Coal mining became a major British industry.
    • 1700: 2.5 million tons extracted per year.
    • 1800: 11 million tons.
  • Power Source: Coal replaced wood, water, beasts of burden, or manpower to power machines.
  • Steam Engines: Coal could run steam engines.

Bessemer Steel

  • Invention: 1856: Henry Bessemer invented a process for mass-producing steel.
  • Composition: Combined iron and carbon.
  • Properties: More durable and resistant to rust.
  • Applications: Steel production allowed for stronger and taller buildings.

Great Exhibition 1851

  • Purpose: Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations.
  • Centerpiece: The Crystal Palace.
  • Goal: Intended to showcase Britain as an industrial powerhouse.

Railroads

  • Development: Railways were first built in Britain and then spread to Western Europe.
  • Milestones:
    • 1825: The first railroad ran 40 miles from the coal fields of Darlington to Stockton.
    • 1830: 1st passenger train opened (Liverpool to Manchester).
    • 1850: 6,600 miles of rail were laid in Great Britain.

Effects of the Railroads

  • Transportation: Transported people and goods.
  • Trade and Migration: Increased trade and migration.
  • Regional Links: Made more connections between regions.
  • National Identity: Gave England a common sense of culture and national identity.

Liverpool - Manchester Line

  • Promotional material for passenger travel on the Liverpool-Manchester line.

Savings Banks

  • Establishment: 1810: the first Savings accounts opened at banks.
  • Benefits:
    • Provided interest for investors.
    • Increased capital; no longer just loaning money.

Patents

  • Legal Protection: 1852: Government made laws to recognize and protect inventors.
  • Motivation: Provided new motivation for innovation.
  • Rewards: Other prizes and rewards were given as well.

Social Mobility

  • New Middle Class:
    • Merchants, clerks, factory managers.
  • Wealth:
    • More wealth allowed for education and better housing.

Repeal of the Corn Laws

  • Corn Laws: Placed a high tariff on imported grains, keeping the price of wheat and corn high.
  • Beneficiaries: High wheat prices benefitted aristocratic landowners and made food expensive for the poor.
  • Repeal:
    • 1846: Anti-corn League (middle class) persuaded Parliament to repeal the laws.
    • Corn and wheat prices were then determined by supply and demand.

Free Trade

  • Anti-Mercantilism: Anti-corn League encouraged free trade.
  • Pricing: Wanted supply and demand to determine pricing decisions.

Industrialization on the Continent

  • Slower Pace: Slower than in Britain.
  • Protectionism: Britain protected inventions from foreign discovery by making it illegal to take blueprints out of the country.
  • Revolutions: Continental Europe experienced many revolutions.
  • Resources: Other nations didn’t have as much coal and iron.
  • Government: Less democratic governments.

Napoleon’s Reforms

  • Military Demands: Growth in industry to keep up with military demands.
  • Bank of France: Helped fund the national railroad.
  • Post-Abdication Growth: Most industry came after Napoleon abdicated and England was more willing to trade.

Nonindustrialized Europe

  • Serfdom: Serfdom had ended (Emancipation Edict 1861 in Russia).
  • Tenant Farmers: People tended to rent land (tenant farmers) instead of moving to cities.
  • Landowners: Landowners maintained power.
  • Innovation & Education: Little innovation and education.

Irish Potato Famine

  • Lack of Industrialization: Ireland not industrialized; no coal.
  • Peat: Burned peat (partially decomposed plants).
  • English Reliance: England relied on Irish agriculture.
  • Blight:
    • 1840-1860: Blight began to destroy the potato crop.
    • “Hungry 40’s”.
    • Led to emigration.

Second Industrial Revolution

  • Unit 6.3 focuses on the Second Industrial Revolution.
  • Time frame: 1870-1914.
  • Major innovations: steel, electricity, galvanized rubber, plastics, internal combustion engine.

Manchester Capitalism

  • First industrial park created in Manchester in 1898.
  • Refers to the idea that free trade could raise the living standard of all workers.

Krupp Family

  • Specialized in weapons manufacturing starting 1840 with steel canons.
  • In 1862, processed an even purer form of steel than Bessemer.
  • Eventually added nickel to it to make it thin for ships.

Krupp Family Management

  • Implemented a General Directive, which was the first systematic plan for management of a large company.

Telegraph

  • Samuel Morse, American, 1840 in America.
  • 1870 - transatlantic cable.
  • Made communication possible in seconds.

Electric Grid

  • 1880s.
  • Supplied cities and towns with electric power for lights, streetcars, and trolleys.
  • Improved city living by making it more fun and safer.

Telephone

  • Alexander Graham Bell, American, 1876.
  • Central switchboard connected wires for better communication.
  • Created jobs for many young women.

Radio

  • Guglielmo Marconi, Italian, 1894.
  • First radio broadcast was in Massachusetts.
  • Spread of ideas, news, and culture, making the world more interconnected.

Transportation Advancements

  • Bicycles
  • Steamships
  • Streetcars
  • Cars
  • Airplanes

Long Depression

  • 1873-1896.
  • Several international economic declines.
  • People ran out of money, leading to “runs” on the banks.

Protectionism

  • High tariffs to protect domestic industries.
  • Lack of trade could actually hurt some industries.

Free Trade Agreements

  • Agreements between countries that banned high tariffs.
  • Most favored country status: one country with special trade interests.

Cartels, Trusts, Monopoly

  • Companies that joined together under one governing board.
  • Monopoly: a company that owns the majority of the industry.

Consumerism

  • Department stores.
  • Marketing.
  • Advertising.
  • Mail order catalogs.
  • Refrigerated cars.

Zollverein Agreement

  • German city states struggled with mass consumerism.
  • 1834 - customs fees had to be eliminated.
  • City states that joined Prussia helped urbanize and industrialize them.

Illustration of Trade Barriers

  • A cartoon represents a merchant traveling through the tiny state of Schaumburg-Lippe, in what is now the south-east part of Lower Saxony, 1834.

Narration of Trade Barriers

  • The narration translates to “You see, officer, that I have nothing to declare. For what’s in the back of the wagon hasn’t crossed the border of Lippe yet, in the middle there’s nothing, and what’s in the front has already crossed the border of Lippe.” This highlights the inefficiencies caused by numerous internal tariffs.

National System

  • Frederich List, economist.
  • Argued that tariffs would protect German industries from English imports.
  • Free trade would eventually replace tariffs.
  • Helped Germany industrialize.
  • By 1871 (German unification) more than 11,000 miles of train tracks.

Social Effects of Industrialization

  • Unit 6.4 focuses on the social effects of industrialization.

Labor - Proletarianization

  • The worker’s labor became a commodity.
  • Most had low wages in horrendous conditions.
  • Child labor was common.
  • There was no perceived need for a social system for children in Britain during the Revolution; instead, they were put to work.

Commercial Market Forming

  • Standard sizes, known as confections, started to replace home-made or custom-made items.
  • More people were out of work, and more took low-skill, low-income jobs to pay the bills.
  • The guild system could not save certain trades.

The Changing Family

  • As machine technology grew, unmarried women and children began to work in the factories and in other areas.
  • Children worked in mines.
  • People lived in tenements; one apartment shared by multiple families.

Class Identity - Middle Class

  • New bourgeoisie.
  • Could afford more, including education, entertainment, and houses.
  • Social Mores: customs that set them apart.
  • Spent a lot of money on homes and clothing.

Class Identity - Lower Class

  • New proletariat.
  • Spent a lot of time together (work and social).
  • Could afford cheaper entertainment such as vaudeville and sports.

Peterloo Massacre

  • August 16, 1819 - the lower class saw themselves as politically united and wanting to be politically represented.
  • 70,000 people gathered in St. Peter’s Field, Manchester, wanting to expand voting rights.
  • 15 people were killed in an effort to break up the group.
  • As a result, more people joined unions.

Philanthropy

  • Attempts to give to the poor, led by the middle class as part of the Social Gospel Movement.
  • Expected recipients to adopt middle-class, Christian customs.

Effects of Urbanization

  • Lack of Housing - shared tenements resulting in some people turning to begging, crime, debtor’s prisons, and orphanages.
  • Poor infrastructure - raw sewage and no plumbing led to spread of disease (cholera outbreaks).
  • Other health issues: lack of Vitamin D (rickets), cholera, TB, typhoid fever, and industrial accidents.
  • Improvements were being made to health care also at a rapid pace.

Factory Act of 1833

  • No child under the age of nine could work in a factory.
  • Children 9-13 could work up to 9 hours a day.
  • Children 14-18 could work 12 hours a day.

Mines Act of 1842

  • No women or children could work in a mine.
  • No boys under 10 could work in a mine.

Enforcement Issues

  • These Acts were difficult to enforce because people would falsify ages.
  • Fines were small, so the risk was minimal.
  • Sometimes upset the poor due to perceived pay issues and seeing little need for education.

Ten Hours Act 1847

  • Children between the ages of 13-18 and all women could only work 10 hours a day on weekdays and 8 hours on weekends.