National UNIFICATIONS and Diplomatic Tensions [AP Euro Review—Unit 7 Topic 3]

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Time period for study: 1815 to 1914, ending with the onset of World War One.

• Importance of historical context in shaping future events.

• Focus topics: Crimean War, unification of Germany and Italy, tensions in the Balkans.

Chapter 2: The Crimean War

• Start of War: 1853, ending a period of about 50 years of peace known as the Concert of Europe.

• Causes of War:

  • Originated from religious tensions in the declining Ottoman Empire.

  • Special privileges granted by the Ottoman Sultan to Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, leading to conflict.

  • Political objectives: Both France and Russia wanted to weaken the Ottoman Empire.

  • Russia aimed for control of the Crimean Peninsula for warm water port access.

• Combatants: Russia alone vs. Ottoman Empire, with support from Britain and France.

• Outcome: Russia's defeat led to a shift in power dynamics in Europe, weakening the Concert of Europe.

• Consequences: Retreat of Britain and Russia from continental affairs, paving the way for German and Italian unifications.

Chapter 3: Italy

• Political Landscape: Italy was fragmented into multiple states seeking unification.

• Key Figures:

  • Count Cavour: Prime Minister of Piedmont, focused on regional unity and infrastructure to bolster military power.

  • Giuseppe Garibaldi: Military leader of the southern regions known as the Red Shirts.

• Cavour's Strategies:

  • Formed an alliance with Napoleon III to expel Austria from Northern Italy.

  • Expansion of Northern control through nationalist uprisings that aligned with Piedmont.

• Garibaldi’s Role: Unified Southern Italy and handed power to Victor Emmanuel II of Northern Italy.

• Unification Completion: After the withdrawal of French troops during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Rome was included in the unified Italy.

Chapter 4: Germany

• Context: Desire for unification post-Revolution of 1848, initially thwarted.

• Otto von Bismarck: Chancellor of Prussia, adept in realpolitik, led German unification efforts.

• Key Wars for Unification:

  • Prussian-Danish War (1864): Joint effort with Austria to reclaim German provinces from Denmark.

  • Austro-Prussian War (1866): Provoked regional conflict to align northern German states with Prussia.

  • Franco-Prussian War (1870): Manufactured conflict with France to rally southern states to Prussia.

• Results of Wars: The success in these conflicts led to the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871, with Kaiser Wilhelm I crowned as the Emperor.

• Post-Unification Alliances:

  • Established alliances to counter France and maintain dominance in Europe.

  • Key alliances: Three Emperors' League and later the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia.

  • Formation of the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy.

• Legacy of Bismarck’s Alliances: Created a polarized Europe with rigid alliances leading to future conflicts.

Chapter 5: Balkans

• Balkan Tensions: Nationalist movements sought self-determination against control by larger powers (Austria, Russia, Ottoman Empire).

• Congress of Berlin (1878): Attempted to address Balkan tensions without considering nationalist desires, increasing unrest instead.

• Balkan Wars:

  • First and Second Balkan Wars reflected the underlying divisions and rivalries among European powers.

  • These conflicts were precursors to World War One, highlighting the need for clarity in European diplomacy.