Final Exam Review Biology

I. Measurement and Variables

  • Length: Use a ruler and record measurements in centimeters (cm).

  • Volume of a Regular Solid: Calculate by multiplying length × width × height (l × w × h). The unit for volume will be cubic centimeters (cm³).

  • Mass: The standard unit for mass in biology is the gram (g). You mentioned "TBB," which might be a specific tool you used, but remember the base unit is the gram.

  • Variables in Experiments:

    • Independent Variable (IV): This is the factor that the scientist purposefully changes or manipulates in an experiment. It's often plotted on the x-axis of a graph.

    • Dependent Variable (DV): This is the factor that changes in response to the independent variable. It's what you measure in your experiment and is usually plotted on the y-axis of a graph.

    • Controlled Variables (Constants): These are factors that are kept the same throughout the experiment to ensure that only the independent variable is affecting the dependent variable. 1 It's important to identify these in your experiments!  


  • Extrapolation: This is the process of estimating data points beyond the range of your existing data on a graph, assuming the trend continues. Be cautious with extrapolations as they may not always be accurate.

SI System Measurement (Ladder Method): This refers to the prefixes used in the metric system (SI units) and how to convert between them. It's helpful to remember the order and the powers of 10 involved. Here's a common order:

Kilo (k)   10³

Hecto (h)  10²

Deca (da)  10¹

Base Unit (e.g., meter, liter, gram) 10⁰

Deci (d)   10⁻¹

Centi (c)  10⁻²

Milli (m)  10⁻³

  •  To convert, you "jump" up or down the ladder, moving the decimal point accordingly.

II. Biological Macromolecules (Organic Molecules)

This section looks good! Let's just add a bit more detail and clarity:

  • Proteins:

    • Monomer (Building Block): Amino acids

    • Polymer: Polypeptide (which folds into a functional protein)

    • Synthesis: Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds during protein synthesis, which occurs at the ribosomes.

    • Elements Present: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N) (often also Sulfur (S))

  • Carbohydrates:

    • Polysaccharides: These are complex carbohydrates (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

    • Monomer (Building Block): Monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose, fructose, galactose)

    • Function: Monosaccharides, particularly glucose, are the primary source of energy for cells. This energy is released through cell respiration, which occurs mainly in the mitochondria, resulting in the production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the cell's energy currency.

    • Elements Present: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) (in a roughly 1:2:1 ratio)

  • Lipids (Fats and Oils):

    • Monomer Components: Fatty acids and glycerol

    • Function: Primarily for long-term energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes.

    • Elements Present: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O) (but with significantly fewer oxygen atoms compared to carbohydrates)

  • Nucleic Acids:

    • Monomer (Building Block): Nucleotides

    • Types: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

    • DNA: Contains genes, which are segments of DNA that code for proteins. DNA is organized into chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

    • Elements Present: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P)

III. Dehydration Synthesis

  • Dehydration Synthesis (or Condensation Reaction): This is the process by which monomers are joined together to form polymers. A molecule of water (H₂O) is removed during this process.

Key Takeaways and Things to Consider Adding:

  • Functions of Macromolecules: Briefly review the main jobs of each macromolecule in living organisms (e.g., proteins: enzymes, structure, transport; carbohydrates: energy, structure; lipids: energy storage, membranes; nucleic acids: genetic information).

  • Hydrolysis: Understand the opposite of dehydration synthesis. Hydrolysis is the process of breaking down polymers into monomers by the addition of water.

  • Cell Respiration Equation (General): Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP

  • Photosynthesis (if covered): Understand how energy enters the ecosystem and how glucose is produced.

  • Cell Structure and Function: You mentioned mitochondria, so make sure you have a good grasp of the basic structures and functions of plant and animal cells (nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall (plants), chloroplasts (plants), etc.).

  • Enzymes: Remember that enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body (biological catalysts).