Visions of Canadian Identity and Nationalism: Comprehensive Study Notes

Promotional Visions and the Imagery of Canada

• Historical and Contemporary Posters (Figure 13-1):

  • Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) Poster: Created in the early $20^{th}$ century, specifically designed to attract British farmers to Canada. It reflects a vision that railway officials believed would appeal to British immigrants.

  • Alberta Ministry of Tourism, Parks, Recreation and Culture Poster: A contemporary image used to promote provincial tourism and culture.

  • Expo 67 Poster: Used to advertise the world’s fair held in Montral to celebrate Canada’s centennial ($100$ years).

  • Objective: These images are created by individuals, groups, businesses, or governments to capture the identity of the country in a single image, though their visions frequently differ based on their specific goals.

Defining the Canadian Identity

• National Identity and Belonging: National identity involves a sense of belonging to a collective or community. Individuals who internalize this identity are more likely to affirm and promote a single identifiable identity. Nationalism and identity are closely related, as people define themselves by the collective or nation to which they feel connected.

• The Concept of "Not Being": Comedian Mike Myers argues that Canadians define themselves by what they are not. He stated, "Canada is the essence of not being. Not English, not American, it is the mathematic of not being."

• Pluralism and Shifting Identity: Political journalist Susan Delacourt describes Canada as a "complicated mix" of bilingualism, multiculturalism, and religious/political pluralism. She writes, "To be Canadian means to be willing to shrug off your own identity so you can imagine what it’s like to be someone else."

• Skeptical Views: Some argue there is no such thing as a Canadian identity because the country is too large and cultural backgrounds are too diverse. These observers acknowledge Canada as a nation-state but do not believe a "Canadian nation" exists in a cultural sense.

Geographic and Climatic Influences on Identity

• Nature and Survival: Novelist Margaret Atwood suggests that the word "survival" is the word that distills the essence of Canada. History is viewed as a struggle to either tame or adapt to nature.

• Winter and the North: Historian and journalist Peter C. Newman ($1990$) stated: "It is our outrageous dimensions that give shape and reason to our identity as Canadians. While no single factor forms a nation’s character, winter’s dominance, and the North that symbolizes it, rank among Canada’s most potent influences."

• Vastness: Many believe Canada is defined by its vast open spaces, small and widely dispersed population, and its northerliness.

Competing Political Visions of Canada

• One Canada: In $1956$, John Diefenbaker expressed a vision of "one Canada" with the aim of "Canadian unity from the Atlantic to the Pacific." This vision emphasizes a civic nation in one political unit regardless of ethnic or regional differences.

• Mosaic and Multiculturalism: The federal government describes Canada as "bilingual within a multicultural context." This vision treats Canada as a mosaic where citizens are encouraged to maintain traditional cultures and languages.

• Community of Communities: In $1979$, Joe Clark (Progressive Conservative leader) described Canada as fundamentally a "community of communities."

• Nation Within a Nation: In $2006$, Prime Minister Stephen Harper proclaimed that the Qubcois constitute a "nation within a united Canada," acknowledging a distinct collective identity while maintaining they remain part of the larger state.

• The Uncreated Identity: Literary critic Northrop Frye ($1967$) suggested Canada’s identity is an ideal that has not yet been achieved: "The Canada to which we really do owe loyalty is the Canada that we have failed to create… our identity, like the real identity of all nations, is the one that we have failed to achieve."

Comparing Narratives of National Identity

• Narrative 1: Richard Gwyn (1996):

  • The Provider-State: Gwyn argues that nation-states exist as exercises in collective imagination to protect and provide for citizens.

  • The "Hollowing Out": He claims the Canadian "provider-state" is being hollowed out, and the state will never again be there for citizens as it was for the last half-century.

  • Lack of Roots: He suggests Canada is not rooted in ethnicity or a history that engages its people, leading to a community that exists only as a political entity—or has no reason to exist at all.

• Narrative 2: Edward Greenspon (2004):

  • The New Nationalism: Greenspon describes a new form of nationalism that is globally engaged, socially liberal, and culturally diverse.

  • Trailblazing: He argues Canada is blazing a trail for $21^{st}$-century nations, finding a unique voice that is not exclusionary or focused on "closing shutters" against outside influence.

The Emergence of Early Visions: Responsible Government

• Context of 1841: The British government merged Upper Canada (Anglophone) and Lower Canada (Francophone) into the Province of Canada. Upper Canada became Canada West (southern Ontario) and Lower Canada became Canada East (southern Qubec).

• Assimilation Goal: English was the only language permitted in the legislature, and representation was equal despite Canada East having a higher population. The intent was to assimilate Francophones into Anglophone culture.

• Baldwin-LaFontaine Partnership: Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine (Canada East) and Robert Baldwin (Canada West) demanded "responsible government" (government answering to the people rather than British-appointed governors).

• Success of 1848: By $1848$, they achieved their goal. French was restored as an official language. Their bicultural initiative became a model for future Anglophone-Francophone partnerships.

Confederation: A Response to External and Internal Pressures

• American Threats: Following the U.S. Civil War ($1861$-$1865$), some Americans advocated for the annexation of British North American colonies. In $1866$, the U.S. House of Representatives passed an act proposing to take over all British colonies.

• The Fenians: A militant Irish-American group conducted armed raids into Canada to hold the colonies until British forces withdrew from Ireland.

• Economic Strain: Restrictive trade laws from Britain and the U.S. hurt the economy.

• The Coalition: John A. Macdonald and George-tienne Cartier led a coalition to achieve independence and preserve Canada, including French culture.

• The BNA Act (1867): Created Canada with two levels of government: federal (national affairs) and provincial (regional affairs). This enabled Qubec to promote French language and culture.

Diverse Perspectives on Confederation

• Shingwaukonse (Anishinab, 1849): Expressed a vision of protecting Indigenous rights to mines on their lands. He was willing to sell land only if paid for minerals already taken and for future extraction to support his children as forest animals grew scarce.

• Antoine-Aim Dorion (Qubec Lawyer): Opposed a large confederation, fearing it would eventually lead to a legislative union that would destroy Qubec’s institutions, laws, and language.

• Thomas D’Arcy McGee (Montral Politician): Supported Confederation ($1860$), envisioning "one great nationality, bound… by the blue rim of ocean," quartered into communities that manage internal affairs but are bound together by free institutions and commerce.

Western Expansion and Immigration Policies

• Treaties and Reserves: The federal government negotiated treaties to move First Nations peoples to reserves to open Western Canada for settlement.

• Clifford Sifton’s Campaign: As Minister of the Interior under Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier ($1896$), Sifton initially sought British and American immigrants. When this was insufficient, he recruited from non-English-speaking European countries (Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Finns, Norwegians).

• Demographic Shifts:

  • The Prairie population grew from $1.3$ million in $1911$ to $2$ million by $1921$.

  • In Alberta, population density rose from $0.29$ people per $2.6$ square kilometers in $1901$ to $2.37$ by $1921$.

  • This shift reduced the dominance of British cultural groups and made Francophones an even smaller minority as most immigrants chose to learn English.

Challenges to Francophone Nationalism

• Declining Influence: In $1867$, French speakers were $31\%$ of the population. By $1931$, they were $27\%$, and by $2001$, they were $23\%$.

• Henri Bourassa: Between $1896$ and $1932$, he promoted equality between Francophone and Anglophone cultures. During WWI, he led opposition to conscription, arguing Francophones should not fight in "Britain’s wars."

• Lionel Groulx: A priest/historian in the first half of the $20^{th}$ century who focused on a nationalist movement centered on the Catholic Church; he believed a separate state might be necessary.

• Maurice Duplessis: Mid-$20^{th}$ century premier who fought for greater autonomy and traditional values.

• The Quiet Revolution (Post-1959): A period of modernization focusing on social programs, education, and the promotion of French culture. For some, like the founders of the Parti Qubcois ($1968$), sovereignty was the goal.

• The Official Languages Act (1969): Passed by Pierre Trudeau, a federalist who believed in a pluralist society and protected language rights for all Francophones.

Systemic Discrimination in Immigration

• Chinese Immigration:

  • Chinese laborers (navvies) were welcomed to build the CPR.

  • Once finished, the Chinese Immigration Act ($1885$) introduced a head tax of $\$50$.

  • This rose to $\$100$ in $1900$ and $\$500$ in $1904$.

  • In $1923$, Chinese immigration was almost entirely banned. Chinese Canadians were denied the vote and certain jobs until after WWII.

• Black Immigrants:

  • In $1911$, Prime Minister Laurier banned Black immigration for one year, stating the "Negro race… is deemed unsuitable to the climate and requirements of Canada."

  • Discrimination included stricter medical tests and removing advertisements from Black American communities.

• Ukrainian Experience:

  • The Szpak family (arrived early $1900s$) paid $\$10$ for $64.7$ hectares under the Dominion Lands Act but faced harsh farming conditions and death from tuberculosis.

  • During WWI ($1914$-$1918$), approximately $80,000$ Ukrainian immigrants were labeled "enemy aliens" because Ukraine was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

  • About $5,000$ were interned in $24$ forced-labour camps; some remained until $1920$.

Aboriginal Rights and Self-Determination

• The Indian Act (1876): Gave the federal government control over First Nations' lives, denied citizenship unless treaty rights were abandoned, and was designed for assimilation.

• Mtis Resistance: After the $1870$ purchase of Rupert’s Land, Louis Riel led a provisional government. The Manitoba Act created the province and provided $566,500$ hectares of land, but the Mtis were eventually outnumbered by European settlers. The $1885$ Resistance ended with Riel's execution.

• The Nisga’a Final Agreement (2000): After a $1973$ Supreme Court ruling that Aboriginal title exists even if not recognized by the government, the Nisga’a settled a claim for $2,019$ square kilometers and the right to self-government.

• Two-Row Wampum (Gus-wen-tah): Ovide Mercredi and Mary Ellen Turpel ($1993$) describe the relationship as two vessels traveling down a river in parallel, where neither side interferes with the other.

The Contemporary Multiculturalism Debate

• Statistics on Identity (Figure 13-14):

  • Percentage identifying as Canadian (Arrived $1991$-$2001$): Black ($13.9\%$), Chinese ($30.6\%$), South Asian ($19.1\%$), Total Visible Minorities ($21.4\%$), White Immigrants ($21.9\%$).

  • Second Generation Identification: Black ($49.6\%$), Chinese ($59.5\%$), South Asian ($53.6\%$), White ($78.2\%$).

• Neil Bissoondath (Selling Illusions, 1994): Argues that official multiculturalism undermines unity by highlighting differences and isolating cultural groups. He suggests a vision of "cultural hybrids" where hyphenation is discarded for an "undiluted" Canadian identity.

• John Ibbitson: Counter-argues that multiculturalism is the "all-important key to Canada’s prosperity" and attracts immigrants vital for the economy.

• Founding Nations Debate: The transition from a "two founding nations" (French/British) model to "three founding nations" (including Aboriginal peoples) is contested by those who argue Aboriginal peoples are not a homogeneous nation or that this still excludes other immigrants.