on virtues and feminism
aristotles virtue ethics (individuals cultivation of virtues that contribute to a life of happiness and societal well-being)
book 1
aim of all actions:
aristotle argues that every action aims at some good (the supreme good)
there is a hierarchy in the purposes of actions, some actions are done for their own sake and some serve as means to reach other ends.
the role of poli sci
poli sci is “architectonic” science because it determines the overarching good. it guides that sciences are activies are necessary for society.
this brand of philosophy addresses ethics by focusing on the collective good, which aristotle bleuves is moe noble than individual good.
happiness of the state is more important than personal happiness alone.
concept of happiness
happiness is the highest good
the general population associates happiness with wealth, pleasure, or honor. philosophers view it as something more complere and self-sufficient. happiness must be an ennd in itself, that fufills a self-contained goal that does not rely on external factors (intrinsic)
3 kinds of life
sensual life (seeking pleasure)
political life (seeking honor)
speculative life (seeking knowledge or contemplation)
finality and self-sufficiency of happiness
true happiness must be final and self-sufficient, it is sought for its own sake and fulfills a complete human life.
ethics
believes developing character to pursue the highest good. phronesis (practical wisdom) guides individuals in making morally sound decisions.
ethics are an lifelong endeavor.
emphasizes the responsibilities individuals hold toward society.
happiness as the supreme good
aristotle asserts that happiness is universally recognized as the ultimate good but seeks to clarify its nature
function of man
man has a distinction function — an activity of soul in accordance with reason
humans differ from other beings because of their ability to reason. thus, the human function is living life governed by rational activity
the function of a good person involves noble actions in line with virtue. happiness is therefore found in living virtuously over a complete life.
types of virtue
intellectual virtue: acquired through teaching and experience
moral virtue: developed through habit, implying that consistent ethical actions create virtuous individuals
habituation and virture
virtue is not inborn but cultivated through repeated good actions
one becomes courageous by facing fears regularly
legislators and virtue
laws shape citizens habits to make them virtuous, aiming for a stable and morally sound society
legislators bear ethical responsibility to create laws that encourage virtue, promoting social stability and ethical behavior on a broader scale
ethics as practice
unlike theoretical studies, ethics is practical, guiding actions rather than mere understanding
right action:
virtuous actions is tied to “right reason” but depends on circumstances, requiring flexibility in judgement
the doctrine of the mean
virtue in found in moderation, avoiding both excess and deficiency. for example, courage is the mean between recklessness and cowardice
role of pleasure and pain: virtue involves managing pleasure and pain, choosing noble actions that may sometimes bring discomfort
moral testing: a persons reaction to pleasure and pain reveals their moral character, with virtue marked by finding joy in self-restraint and courage in facing fears
training for virtue: early habituation to virtuous actions prepares individuals to make ethical choices
components of the soul
emotions; inclinations that anger, joy, or fear, which are accompanied by pleasure or pain.
faculties: abilities to feel emotions, such as feeling anger or pity
moral states: dispositions affecting emotional responses, guiding people to react moderately to emotions.
virtue as a balanced disposition: virtue involved moderating emotions through habituation, maintaining balance
virtues vs emotions
virtues and vices differ from emotions, we do not praise or blame someone simply feeling emotions rather (emotions) we praise or blame how they handle those emotions (virtue)
virtue as excellence and the mean
virtue: an excellence that allows a person to perform their function well, like the way the excellence of an eye allows it see well
the mean: virtue is a described as a mean relative to the individual. a balanced point between two extremes of excess and deficiency.
virtue as an aim at the mean
virtue as a deliberate mean: virtue is characterized by a deliberate choice aimed at achieving the mean in both emotions and actions
virtue in relation to vices: each virtue sits between two vices, such as courage between recklessness and cowardice. the mean in considered the “right” way, but aristotle acknowledges that the mean itself in an extreme in excellence.
non-negotiable vices: some actions, like murder and theft, are inherently wrong regardless of intention or context and do not admit a mean.
finding the mean
difficulty of the mean: hitting the mean requires wisdom and precision similar to technical skills like finding the center of a circle
avoiding extremes: practicing avoidance of whichever extreme we are inclined toward. for instance, if prone to excess in anger, one should strive toward the opposite to approximate the mean.
pleasure can bias our judgement
teachings of confucius
virtue and moral character
confucius emphasizes the importance of lifelong learning and consistent application. learning is a continual process to refine moral character, rather to gain status or recognition
true virtue requires not seeking pleasure, wealth, or comfort for oneself but instead focusing on moral conduct and relationships
the superior man focuses on righteousness, humility, and sincerity.
character and integrity over individual gains or recognition. morality is something cultivated through actions and relationships rather than a tool for individual advancement
propriety and filial piety
filial piety (respect for one’s parents) is at the core of virtuous actions. respect and loyalty within families provide a foundation for broader social ethics and harmony
adhering to traditional rules of propriety is important to moral character and social harmony.
propriety governs behavior in various aspects of life, family interactions to governmental duties.
family can be seen as a microcosm for respecting societal roles and laws.
reciprocity and the golden rule
people should avoid doing to others what they would not want done to themselves.
governance and the role of virtue
a ruler who governs through virtue will inspire the same in the people. laws and punishments may enforce compliance but fail to inspire moral goodness.
the role of the superior man
a person of high moral character who acts with sincerity, earnestness, kindness, and generosity. he avoids partisanship, practices self-discipline, and seeks to refine his moral character continuously.
recognizing and overcoming faults
recognize faults, examine actions, strive for improvement.
wisdom and spiritual respect
wisdom involves performing one’s duties with integrity while maintaining a respectful distance from spiritual matters.
focusing on practical ethical concerns rather than purely abstract of metaphysical questions.
the mean and balance in virtue
excess in any direction can disrupt social harmony and personal integrity. practice in moderation.
comparable to aristotle’s “doctrine of the mean”
aristotles virtue theory
virtue theory and the ideal person
character traits: confidence, courage, and generosity without excess. well-balanced and naturally leads to right actions
a good person will naturally do good things without needing a rule book
eudaimonia
eudaimonia (human flourishing) is the ultimate aim of life
a virtuous life, focused on continuous self-improvement
it is not an easy or leisurely life but rather one filled with purpose, satisfaction, and resilience. continuous striving towards the best version of oneself defines eudaimonia.
concept of proper functioning
every being has a specific purpose or function and goodness depends on fulfilling that function
just as a knife is good when it cuts well a person is good when they fulfill their function of being virtuous in their interactions with others
the golden mean
courage is the midpoint between recklessness and cowardice
generosity is between stinginess and extravegance
honesty lies between brutal honesty and excessive restraint
virtue as practical wisdom (phronesis)
not theoretical, but rather “street smarts”
to learn virtue, follow a moral exemplar.
developing virtue through habituation
habit formation: virtues become ingrained through habituation.
virtue vs ren
virtue: excellence, associated with human function.
aristotle argues that virtue allows humans to perform their unique function effectively
ren: a relational quality, guided by ritual propriety (li)
implies noble human traits
differences in application
individual excellence by fulfilling rational and social functions (virtue) vs social relationships guided by ritual propriety
concept of ren
ren combines filial love with the principle of returning to li
ren is cultural etiquette and moral virtue
ren embodies humaneness, is cultivated through li and guides individuals to behave virtuously
li is adherence to cultural norms, yi is a principle for righteousness where li doesn’t clearly apply
filial love is central to cultivating ren. respect towards duty toward family create a natural social hierarchy.
filial love expands from family to broader social circles.
social context
li focuses on harmony within a structured society and ren is actualized through role-based duties, which emphasizes hierarchical social structures.
virtue develops through habituation and aligns with practical wisdom.
phronesis
helps individuals understand why socially learned behaviors are noble and true. knowledge based understanding of virtue
guides the selection of virtuous ends in conflicting situations
recognizes the limits of universal principles and allows for adaptability
character building through good social habits
friendship and love (aristotle)
philia (friendship) is essential to human happiness (eudaimonia) natural and voluntary.
parental love is intense, but sees friendships as mirrors reflecting ones own virtues and character.
confucius thinks love starts with family, and therefore benefits society. but aristotle promotes self-reflective virtue and rational self-love that indirectly benefits society through friendships.
modern dilemmas
confucianism prioritizes filial loyalty over impartiality, which places family over universal justice in ethical conflicts
Confucian values critique western indivualism
aristotle's focus on personal virtue challenges utilitarian or rule based frameworks by emphasizing context based moral decision making
reconnects reason with virtue for balanced ethical frameworks.
the birth of Chinese feminism
critiques confucianism and its role in Chinese patriarchal society. classical texts were used to institutionalize gender inequality by setting strict hierarchical roles for men and women
identifies Confucian ideology as reinforcing men’s supremacy and restricting women’s autonomy.
examples of enforced obedience, restrictions on remarriage for women, and the idea that woman are to act as extensions of men's will
li places women in a subordinate roles by ritualizing obedience and service to men in familial and social settings.
social structures led to suffering for countless women.
patriarchal norms were unchallenged and ingrained
re-examine Confucian principles to challenge the normalized inequality that has been both culturally and institutionally embedded in society
Confucian family state and women’s role
women roles were strictly domestic
the choson dynasty in Korea where Confucian ideals justified women’s subordiantion.
confucian values could support a feminst perspective by advocating moral equality between genders
ren is applicable to both men and women, thus a Confucian society could theoretically support women’s self-cultivation
traditional Confucian family states learned toward partiarachy but reinterpretation could allow for shared family roles and equal parent responsibility
people centeredness: the notion that rules should prioritize the people’s welfare suggests a form of political ethics, aligning with gender equality by supporting policies for family well-being
a democratic Confucian family state could uphold family and communal values while supporting women participation in both family and public spheres
3.3 v 3.4
kant emphasizes principles, universalizability, and respect for individuals, while mill focuses on outcomes, collective happiness, and the balance of pleasures. kant focuses on protecting rights and mill maximizes social welfare. kant is rigid, mill is flexible. kant is intrinsic, concentrates on the principle, mill focuses on consequences and results of actions.
3.3
good will as the only unqualified good
nothing is inherently good without qualification except a “good will”
courage of happiness can be used for both good and bad, but good will is not valued for what is achieves but because of its intrinsic nature.
qualities like self-control and moderation are praised but need a good will to prevent them from being harmful
a calm but malicious person is more dangerous than an openly cruel one.
actions done from duty (moral worth) and those driven by inclination (no moral worth, despite positive outcomes)
ex: a shopkeeper who doesn’t overcharge to maintain his reputation acts from self-interest rather than duty.
true moral worth only exists when actions are done because they are intrinsically right
duty is not about achieving certain results but acting from principles and respect for moral law.
ex: preserving ones life from duty, even when life has lost its luster shows moral worth, it’s not motivated by personal inclination
practical love (acting out of duty for others’ welfare) and pathological love (driven by emotional affection)
while feelings cannot be commanded, practical love can be commanded. we are morally required to act kindly toward others, including those we might dislike
moral worth comes from actions done from duty alone
actions done from duty derive their moral worth from the principle that inspires them, not from the desired outcomes. morality is the intention, not the result
duty requires action from respect for law, where the moral law is an end in itself, not a means to satisfy inclination
good will and duty introduces moral autonomy, where individuals are responsible for their actions through rational adherence to duty, independent of external rewards
ethics contrasts with utilitarian ethics
moral actions should be guided by maxims that can be universally applied. a moral good will is on that acts in accordance with a universal law, not based on outcomes
challenges us to consider the broader implications of our actions on society.
being truthful due to fear of consequences is prudence, being truthful because it is right shows moral worth
3.4 Mill
actions are morally right if they promote happiness and wrong if they cause unhappiness (the greatest happiness principle)
utilitarianism is based on maximizing happiness, making it a primary moral directive
the ultimate goal of all actions is an existence rich in pleasures and as free from pain as possible
encourages individuals to be impartial, weighing their own happiness against that of others equally.
internal sanctions (conscience or pain associated with violating moral duty) can become intense and lead to remorse if cultivated properly.
happiness cannot be proven in the conventional sense but can be affirmed by observing human desires. since each person desires their own happiness, the aggregate of these desires implies that general happiness is a good for society as a whole.
higher (intellectual) and lower (bodily) pleasures, implicates mental pleasures to be intrinsically superior.
the higher quality of pleasure is determined by those who have experienced both.
there is an importance of educated judgement in ethical decision-making.
advocates for the role of experience and education in cultivating moral judgement
human beings will not choose lower forms of satisfaction even if they seemed content with them
human dignity makes higher pleasures more desirable even if they bring more challenges
many people settle for lower pleasures due to lack of opportunity or the fragile nature of higher aspirations. people might lose access to higher pleasures because they lack the social or personal resources to maintain them