Apologetics - Biology Test Study Guide
Apologetics - Biology Test Study Guide
1. Everyone agrees natural selection acting on random variation can accomplish certain things (adaptation, the modification of existing systems, etc.) But what about this mechanism is disputed by skeptics of the theory?
What is disputed is whether Darwin's mechanism can innovate (create entirely new systems and functions).
2. According to Darwin, what kind of thing would lead to the “absolute break down” of his theory?
The demonstration of a complex organ that couldn’t possibly have been formed by “numerous, successive, slight modifications.”
3. One serious challenge to Darwin’s theory is the existence of systems with a property called “Irreducible Complexity”. What are the characteristics of a system that is irreducibly complex?
These systems have multiple interacting parts working together in an integrated way to perform some function. This function appears only as they work together and disappears if any part is removed.
4. Why do irreducibly complex systems present a challenge to the Darwinian explanation of life?
Darwin’s mechanism can’t gradually build up to something irreducibly complex, because until it’s complete it doesn’t function and is invisible to natural selection.
5. How has our understanding of the cell changed since Darwin’s day?
In Darwin’s day the cell was thought to be a simple glob of protoplasm. We now know they are almost unimaginably complex and involve thousands of systems comprised of molecular machines.
6. At the 2016 Royal Society meeting on the state of evolutionary theory, the eminent evolutionary Biologist Gerd Muller spoke about “explanatory deficits” in current theory (things he believes it can’t adequately explain). What were the things he listed?
1. Complexity
2. Novelty (the appearance of new forms and functions)
3. Non-gradual changes in the fossil record
7. Evidence for common descent (aka common ancestry) is not evidence for the creative power of Darwin’s mechanism. Explain.
The idea of common descent is based on a set of observations not explanations. It claims certain creatures are related, but doesn’t explain how changes occurred or where biological systems came from.
8. While natural selection is an important idea, it’s ultimately inadequate when it comes to explaining life. Explain.
Natural selection is a filter not a creative agent. It may explain the survival of a feature, but it can’t explain the arrival of that feature.
9. In large organisms rates of evolution would be far too slow to observe. However, there is a way for us to see Darwinian processes at work. How is this possible and why is it important for testing the claims of the theory?
Simpler creatures (like single celled organisms) reproduce at exponentially higher rates. This means we can watch Darwinian processes in action and see what the mechanism can or cannot do.
10. The Cambrian Explosion, life’s “Big Bang” is not an entirely unique phenomenon. Explain.
There are numerous explosive events in the history of life involving the abrupt appearance of new body plans. These events are more the norm than something unusual.
11. In addition to the abrupt appearance of complex animal forms, how does the Cambrian Explosion challenge the standard Darwinian explanation of the development of life?
Darwin's model predicts a tree-like structure to the development of life. As organisms go from simple to more complex we should expect more larger taxonomic divisions (like phyla) to appear. Instead, we see the opposite. The geological record reveals a not a tree but a lawn! The major body-plans (Phyla) are there from the beginning and diversification occurs within these divisions as time goes on.
12. The Darwinian mechanism is very good at what’s called “selective optimization.” Why doesn’t the ability to optimize prove that the Darwinian mechanism can explain all that we see in life?
Optimization only works on systems and traits that already exist! It involves moving by small steps along a continuum of functionality. But this isn’t the same as creating something new. It can refine, but we have no evidence it can build from scratch.
13. Skeptical scientists at the famous Wistar Symposium in 1966 argued that Darwinism has severe mathematical problems. One of the leading voices in this camp was Murray Eden of MIT. What did Eden argue?
The number of possible arrangements for proteins is unimaginably huge. So, unless functional proteins are common among all the possibilities, there’s basically no chance a blind, random search could create them.
14. Studies done over the last 40 years at Cambridge, MIT and elsewhere have revealed something that appears to make the chance creation of a protein molecule by any blind, random process effectively impossible. What have every one of these studies shown?
Functional proteins (sequences that fold into stable 3D shapes) are incredibly rare among possible sequences. For every one that works, there are anastronomical number that don’t. (Some estimates put the odds at worse than choosing one marked atom at random from an entire galaxy.)
15. What is meant by “coordinated mutations” and why is this an important concept in evaluating Darwinism?
Coordinated mutations are genetic changes which only together produce some beneficial trait. They’re important because most changes in the history of life would require many coordinated mutations.
16. An enormous problem for the standard Darwinian theory is the so called “Waiting Time Problem.” Explain the problem.
We can easily calculate how long it should take for certain genetic events to take place. When we do we find the amount of time it would take for things to evolve through random mutations is far, far longer than the time available.
17. In his book The Edge of Evolution Michael Behe demonstrates that the empirical data we have decisively shows that Neo-Darwinism faces insurmountable problems. Summarize his findings.
Behe found the “waiting time” required for just twocoordinated mutations (in anything above a single-celled organism) is astronomically longer than the time available. And anything involving four or morecoordinated mutations couldn’t be achieved by all the cells that have ever existed in history.
18. In 2004, after 50 years as the world’s most famous academic atheist, Antony Flew came to believe the universe was brought into existence by “an infinite intelligence.” How did Flew explain his surprising change of mind?
He believed this was “the world picture that has emerged from modern science.” The one thing in particular that convinced him was DNA.
19. A Von Neumann replicator has to have a symbolic representation of itself within itself. So, if life is a Von Neumann replicator, this seems to have profound philosophical implications. Explain.
Symbolic representation involves a kind of translation between a physical domain and a symbolic domain. But this kind of abstract relationship isn’t something that can come from physical laws. Only a mind can invent and use abstract realities (like symbols or code).
20. You should be familiar with the following facts regarding the “Cambrian Explosion.”
1. The first fossils of animals appear.
2. Most of the major animal body-plans (Phyla) appear suddenly and without precursors (ancestors).
3. The event was global in scope.
4. It happened in a period so short it’s below the resolution of the fossil record.
21. Explain the difference between coding and non-coding DNA.
Only a small fraction of DNA (1 to 2%) codes for proteins. Until recently most of the rest was called “Junk DNA.” However, we’ve learned that much of this is functional and serves as a kind of operating system.
22. Genes, we now know, are best understood as elements in vast, dynamic, intercellular signaling networks that essentially control the cell. These are called ____________________.
Gene Regulatory Networks
23. Macroevolution would require fundamental changes in the body plan of an animal. Given what we know about Gene Regulatory Networks, why is this a problem?
In all known cases, mutations affecting genes controlling body-plan formation have catastrophic results (severe deformity or death). Genes that we do see varying affect only superficial aspects of organisms.
24. With more and more biologists now admitting the significant problems of the standard Darwinian theory, many are putting their hope in a new discipline called Evolutionary Developmental Biology (Evo Devo). Explain why they hope this will succeed where the standard theory has failed.
They believe mutating specific genes might rewire Gene Regulatory Networks. Basically, they think that acting on the overarching controls can indirectly flip lots of genetic switches and make evolution easier.
25. Building a new animal body plan would require a new Developmental Gene Regulatory Network. Eric Davidson of Caltech was the leading expert on DGRN’s in the world. Summarize his findings and views on this subject.
All of the experimental data shows DGRNs are stubbornly resistant to any kind of mutational change. There are no examples of the core structures in these networks varying at all.
26. Despite the hype, a strong case can be made that Evo Devo, instead of solving the problems of evolutionary theory, actually makes things far worse. Explain.
Evo Devo has to assume more than Neo-Darwinism. It attempts to explain lower levels of complexity by appealing to higher levels of greater unexplained complexity (i.e. the super-complex regulatory networks).