TASK-BASED MATERIAL . CHAP 5 (1)

The functional-notional approach to language teaching lost popularity in the late 1980s.
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) emerged as a replacement.
Second language researchers Long and Crookes (1992, 1993) argued that both functional-notional and structural syllabi are synthetic, breaking down language into smaller units for teaching.
Structural syllabi focus on grammatical units, while functional-notional syllabi center on functional and notional units.
Long and Crookes advocated for a task-based syllabus, prioritizing tasks for syllabus design.

TBLT, or task-based instruction (TBI), emphasizes using authentic language for meaningful tasks in the target language.
Examples of tasks:
- Visiting a doctor
- Conducting an interview
- Calling customer service for assistance
Assessment in TBLT is outcome-focused, prioritizing completion of tasks over accuracy of language forms.
TBLT is aligned with communicative language teaching (CLT).

Proponents argue that effective language teaching involves real language use through task design (Willis and Willis, 2007).
The term "task" has various definitions; a commonly cited one (Nunan, 1989) describes a communicative task as:
- Involves comprehension, manipulation, production, or interaction in the target language.
- Focuses on meaning rather than grammatical form.
- Possesses a sense of completeness, functioning as a standalone communicative act.

Learners focus on exchanging and understanding meanings over practicing specific language forms.
Goal-Oriented: Learners understand expected accomplishments by the end of tasks (e.g., solutions to problems).
The outcome can be shared with others.
Tasks can involve all four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Although language-focused study can occur, it typically does not precede the task itself.

Activities that require practicing recently learned language patterns do not qualify as tasks (e.g., filling gaps with correct verb forms).
Such activities emphasize practicing pre-selected forms over expressive language use.

Focused Tasks: Provide opportunities for communication using specific grammatical structures.
Unfocused Tasks: Encourage general communication, utilizing all linguistic resources.
- Example of a focused task: Listing exciting team sports may require use of superlatives.
- Example of unfocused task: A discussion on a topic without specific linguistic features.

Concerns include students using their mother tongue more than English during tasks (Carless, 2002).
Two reasons for relying on the mother tongue:
- Tasks may demand complex linguistic needs and open-ended tasks.
- Students might lack proficiency to express ideas in English.
However, Carless (2003) argues that proficiency issues in implementing TBLT are misconceptions.

Carless (2003) suggests increased teacher preparation (e.g., drills) as pre-tasks.
Tasks must be aligned with student proficiency levels.
Other challenges: classroom management, student involvement, time availability, and learning styles (Carless, 2002).
Yen (2016) indicated motivation issues in TBLT compared to PPP (Presentation-Practice-Production), especially after multiple revisions.

Task-Based Syllabus: Focuses on unfocused tasks as central teaching units.
Task-Supported Syllabus: Combines structural syllabus with focused tasks in its final stages (Ellis, 2009).
Important for selection and evaluation as not all course materials with tasks are inherently task-based.

Real-World Tasks: Reflect actual language use (e.g., making calls or filling forms); known as target tasks.
Pedagogic Tasks: Designed for classroom contexts to promote specific linguistic features and interactions.
- Example: Spot-the-difference activity focuses on interaction.

Selection based on needs analysis results (Long and Crookes, 1992).
Identify target tasks and classify them as specific task types (e.g., serving food).
Create pedagogic tasks for classroom application.

Good pedagogic tasks:
- Promote meaning, purpose, and negotiation.
- Focus on relevant data.
- Derive objectives from learners' communicative needs.
- Allow flexible approaches to tasks, accommodating varied participation.

Opportunities for learners’ metacommunication (discussing communication) and reflection.
Enhance capacities for problem-solving and data awareness.
Promote sharing of expertise.
Provide monitoring and feedback on task performance.

Criteria for determining task difficulty includes learner, task, and text/input factors (Nunan, 2004).

Learner Factors: Confidence, motivation, prior knowledge, and language skills.
Task Factors: Cognitive complexity, number of steps, context availability, accuracy requirement, time allowance.
Text/Input Factors: Length, clarity, contextual clues, familiarity of content.

Cognitive complexity, focused on familiarity and processing, draws notable attention (Skehan, 1998).

Processing Activities:
- Physical, non-verbal responses to auditory cues (e.g., students raise hands when specific words are heard).
- Non-physical, non-verbal tasks (e.g., ticking words heard on a grid).

Productive Activities:
- Repetition exercises (e.g., students repeating questions).
- Drill exercises with controlled question and answer sessions.

Interactive Activities:
- Simulated role plays and actual discussions about family using practiced structures.
- Real problem-solving activities with collaborative efforts among groups.

Classification can be by focused versus unfocused or real-world versus pedagogic.
- Jigsaw, information-gap, problem-solving, and opinion exchange tasks as various types.

Classification includes cognitive, interpersonal, linguistic, affective, and creative strategies with various examples.